---
_id: '61156'
abstract:
- lang: eng
text: Explainability has become an important topic in computer science and artificial
intelligence, leading to a subfield called Explainable Artificial Intelligence
(XAI). The goal of providing or seeking explanations is to achieve (better) ‘understanding’
on the part of the explainee. However, what it means to ‘understand’ is still
not clearly defined, and the concept itself is rarely the subject of scientific
investigation. This conceptual article aims to present a model of forms of understanding
for XAI-explanations and beyond. From an interdisciplinary perspective bringing
together computer science, linguistics, sociology, philosophy and psychology,
a definition of understanding and its forms, assessment, and dynamics during the
process of giving everyday explanations are explored. Two types of understanding
are considered as possible outcomes of explanations, namely enabledness, ‘knowing
how’ to do or decide something, and comprehension, ‘knowing that’ – both in different
degrees (from shallow to deep). Explanations regularly start with shallow understanding
in a specific domain and can lead to deep comprehension and enabledness of the
explanandum, which we see as a prerequisite for human users to gain agency. In
this process, the increase of comprehension and enabledness are highly interdependent.
Against the background of this systematization, special challenges of understanding
in XAI are discussed.
article_number: '101419'
article_type: original
author:
- first_name: Hendrik
full_name: Buschmeier, Hendrik
id: '76456'
last_name: Buschmeier
orcid: 0000-0002-9613-5713
- first_name: Heike M.
full_name: Buhl, Heike M.
id: '27152'
last_name: Buhl
- first_name: Friederike
full_name: Kern, Friederike
last_name: Kern
- first_name: Angela
full_name: Grimminger, Angela
id: '57578'
last_name: Grimminger
- first_name: Helen
full_name: Beierling, Helen
id: '50995'
last_name: Beierling
- first_name: Josephine Beryl
full_name: Fisher, Josephine Beryl
id: '56345'
last_name: Fisher
orcid: 0000-0002-9997-9241
- first_name: André
full_name: Groß, André
id: '93405'
last_name: Groß
orcid: 0000-0002-9593-7220
- first_name: Ilona
full_name: Horwath, Ilona
id: '68836'
last_name: Horwath
- first_name: Nils
full_name: Klowait, Nils
id: '98454'
last_name: Klowait
orcid: 0000-0002-7347-099X
- first_name: Stefan Teodorov
full_name: Lazarov, Stefan Teodorov
id: '90345'
last_name: Lazarov
orcid: 0009-0009-0892-9483
- first_name: Michael
full_name: Lenke, Michael
last_name: Lenke
- first_name: Vivien
full_name: Lohmer, Vivien
last_name: Lohmer
- first_name: Katharina
full_name: Rohlfing, Katharina
id: '50352'
last_name: Rohlfing
orcid: 0000-0002-5676-8233
- first_name: Ingrid
full_name: Scharlau, Ingrid
id: '451'
last_name: Scharlau
orcid: 0000-0003-2364-9489
- first_name: Amit
full_name: Singh, Amit
id: '91018'
last_name: Singh
orcid: 0000-0002-7789-1521
- first_name: Lutz
full_name: Terfloth, Lutz
id: '37320'
last_name: Terfloth
- first_name: Anna-Lisa
full_name: Vollmer, Anna-Lisa
id: '86589'
last_name: Vollmer
- first_name: Yu
full_name: Wang, Yu
last_name: Wang
- first_name: Annedore
full_name: Wilmes, Annedore
last_name: Wilmes
- first_name: Britta
full_name: Wrede, Britta
last_name: Wrede
citation:
ama: Buschmeier H, Buhl HM, Kern F, et al. Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations.
Cognitive Systems Research. 2025;94. doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419
apa: Buschmeier, H., Buhl, H. M., Kern, F., Grimminger, A., Beierling, H., Fisher,
J. B., Groß, A., Horwath, I., Klowait, N., Lazarov, S. T., Lenke, M., Lohmer,
V., Rohlfing, K., Scharlau, I., Singh, A., Terfloth, L., Vollmer, A.-L., Wang,
Y., Wilmes, A., & Wrede, B. (2025). Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations.
Cognitive Systems Research, 94, Article 101419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419
bibtex: '@article{Buschmeier_Buhl_Kern_Grimminger_Beierling_Fisher_Groß_Horwath_Klowait_Lazarov_et
al._2025, title={Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations}, volume={94}, DOI={10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419},
number={101419}, journal={Cognitive Systems Research}, author={Buschmeier, Hendrik
and Buhl, Heike M. and Kern, Friederike and Grimminger, Angela and Beierling,
Helen and Fisher, Josephine Beryl and Groß, André and Horwath, Ilona and Klowait,
Nils and Lazarov, Stefan Teodorov and et al.}, year={2025} }'
chicago: Buschmeier, Hendrik, Heike M. Buhl, Friederike Kern, Angela Grimminger,
Helen Beierling, Josephine Beryl Fisher, André Groß, et al. “Forms of Understanding
for XAI-Explanations.” Cognitive Systems Research 94 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419.
ieee: 'H. Buschmeier et al., “Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations,”
Cognitive Systems Research, vol. 94, Art. no. 101419, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419.'
mla: Buschmeier, Hendrik, et al. “Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations.”
Cognitive Systems Research, vol. 94, 101419, 2025, doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419.
short: H. Buschmeier, H.M. Buhl, F. Kern, A. Grimminger, H. Beierling, J.B. Fisher,
A. Groß, I. Horwath, N. Klowait, S.T. Lazarov, M. Lenke, V. Lohmer, K. Rohlfing,
I. Scharlau, A. Singh, L. Terfloth, A.-L. Vollmer, Y. Wang, A. Wilmes, B. Wrede,
Cognitive Systems Research 94 (2025).
date_created: 2025-09-08T14:24:32Z
date_updated: 2025-12-05T15:32:25Z
ddc:
- '006'
department:
- _id: '660'
doi: 10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419
file:
- access_level: closed
content_type: application/pdf
creator: hbuschme
date_created: 2025-12-01T21:02:20Z
date_updated: 2025-12-01T21:02:20Z
file_id: '62730'
file_name: Buschmeier-etal-2025-COGSYS.pdf
file_size: 10114981
relation: main_file
success: 1
file_date_updated: 2025-12-01T21:02:20Z
has_accepted_license: '1'
intvolume: ' 94'
keyword:
- understanding
- explaining
- explanations
- explainable
- AI
- interdisciplinarity
- comprehension
- enabledness
- agency
language:
- iso: eng
main_file_link:
- open_access: '1'
url: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1389041725000993?via%3Dihub
oa: '1'
project:
- _id: '111'
name: 'TRR 318; TP A01: Adaptives Erklären'
- _id: '112'
name: 'TRR 318; TP A02: Verstehensprozess einer Erklärung beobachten und auswerten'
- _id: '113'
name: TRR 318 - Subproject A3
- _id: '114'
name: 'TRR 318; TP A04: Integration des technischen Modells in das Partnermodell
bei der Erklärung von digitalen Artefakten'
- _id: '115'
name: 'TRR 318; TP A05: Echtzeitmessung der Aufmerksamkeit im Mensch-Roboter-Erklärdialog'
- _id: '122'
name: TRR 318 - Subproject B3
- _id: '123'
name: TRR 318 - Subproject B5
- _id: '119'
name: TRR 318 - Project Area Ö
publication: Cognitive Systems Research
publication_status: published
quality_controlled: '1'
status: public
title: Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations
type: journal_article
user_id: '57578'
volume: 94
year: '2025'
...
---
_id: '30289'
abstract:
- lang: eng
text: This chapter presents a discussion of the concept of agency. Agency is understood
as a multifaceted construct describing the idea that human beings make choices,
act on these choices, and thereby exercise influence on their own lives as well
as their environment. We argue that the concept is discussed from three different
perspectives in the literature—transformational, dispositional, and relational—that
are each related to learning and development in work contexts. These perspectives
do not reflect incompatible positions but rather different aspects of the same
phenomena. The chapter also offers an avenue of insight into empirical studies
that employ agency as a central concept as well as discussions about concepts
that closely overlap with ideas of human beings as agents of power and influence.
author:
- first_name: Michael
full_name: Goller, Michael
id: '30984'
last_name: Goller
orcid: 0000-0002-2820-9178
- first_name: Susanna
full_name: Paloniemi, Susanna
last_name: Paloniemi
citation:
ama: 'Goller M, Paloniemi S. Agency: Taking Stock of Workplace Learning Research.
In: Research Approaches on Workplace Learning. Springer International Publishing;
2022. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89582-2_1'
apa: 'Goller, M., & Paloniemi, S. (2022). Agency: Taking Stock of Workplace
Learning Research. In Research Approaches on Workplace Learning. Springer
International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89582-2_1'
bibtex: '@inbook{Goller_Paloniemi_2022, place={Cham}, title={Agency: Taking Stock
of Workplace Learning Research}, DOI={10.1007/978-3-030-89582-2_1},
booktitle={Research Approaches on Workplace Learning}, publisher={Springer International
Publishing}, author={Goller, Michael and Paloniemi, Susanna}, year={2022} }'
chicago: 'Goller, Michael, and Susanna Paloniemi. “Agency: Taking Stock of Workplace
Learning Research.” In Research Approaches on Workplace Learning. Cham:
Springer International Publishing, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-89582-2_1.'
ieee: 'M. Goller and S. Paloniemi, “Agency: Taking Stock of Workplace Learning Research,”
in Research Approaches on Workplace Learning, Cham: Springer International
Publishing, 2022.'
mla: 'Goller, Michael, and Susanna Paloniemi. “Agency: Taking Stock of Workplace
Learning Research.” Research Approaches on Workplace Learning, Springer
International Publishing, 2022, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89582-2_1.'
short: 'M. Goller, S. Paloniemi, in: Research Approaches on Workplace Learning,
Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2022.'
date_created: 2022-03-13T19:09:20Z
date_updated: 2022-03-13T19:14:43Z
department:
- _id: '452'
doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-89582-2_1
keyword:
- Agency Workplace learning Professional development Proactivity Self-direction
language:
- iso: eng
place: Cham
publication: Research Approaches on Workplace Learning
publication_identifier:
isbn:
- '9783030895815'
- '9783030895822'
issn:
- 2210-5549
- 2210-5557
publication_status: published
publisher: Springer International Publishing
related_material:
link:
- relation: other
url: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-89582-2_1#Abs1
status: public
title: 'Agency: Taking Stock of Workplace Learning Research'
type: book_chapter
user_id: '50788'
year: '2022'
...
---
_id: '3600'
abstract:
- lang: eng
text: "Michael Goller gives a structured overview of the current discourses of human
agency in relation to professional learning and development. Based on this discussion,
the author develops a theoretical framework including human agency as an individual
feature (i. e., a disposition) as well as a set of self-initiated and goal-directed
behaviours that are assumed to affect employees’ learning and development (e.
g., crafting of new work experiences). He then further specifies this theoretical
framework and investigates it empirically in the domain of geriatric care nursing.
Based on the findings of the three empirical studies conducted, the author discusses
the relevance of human agency for the development of professional expertise of
geriatric care nurses.\r\n\r\nThe work received the American Educational Research
Association (AERA) Workplace Learning SIG 2017 Dissertation of the Year Award."
author:
- first_name: Michael
full_name: Goller, Michael
id: '30984'
last_name: Goller
orcid: 0000-0002-2820-9178
citation:
ama: 'Goller M. Human Agency at Work: An Active Approach towards Expertise Development.
Wiesbaden: Springer; 2017. doi:10.1007/978-3-658-18286-1'
apa: 'Goller, M. (2017). Human agency at work: An active approach towards expertise
development. Wiesbaden: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-18286-1'
bibtex: '@book{Goller_2017, place={Wiesbaden}, title={Human agency at work: An active
approach towards expertise development}, DOI={10.1007/978-3-658-18286-1},
publisher={Springer}, author={Goller, Michael}, year={2017} }'
chicago: 'Goller, Michael. Human Agency at Work: An Active Approach towards Expertise
Development. Wiesbaden: Springer, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-18286-1.'
ieee: 'M. Goller, Human agency at work: An active approach towards expertise
development. Wiesbaden: Springer, 2017.'
mla: 'Goller, Michael. Human Agency at Work: An Active Approach towards Expertise
Development. Springer, 2017, doi:10.1007/978-3-658-18286-1.'
short: 'M. Goller, Human Agency at Work: An Active Approach towards Expertise Development,
Springer, Wiesbaden, 2017.'
date_created: 2018-07-23T09:29:39Z
date_updated: 2022-01-06T06:59:27Z
department:
- _id: '452'
doi: 10.1007/978-3-658-18286-1
keyword:
- Workplace learning
- Agency
- Expertise
language:
- iso: eng
main_file_link:
- url: https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-658-18286-1
page: '373'
place: Wiesbaden
publication_identifier:
isbn:
- 978-3-658-18285-4
publication_status: published
publisher: Springer
quality_controlled: '1'
status: public
title: 'Human agency at work: An active approach towards expertise development'
type: book
user_id: '30984'
year: '2017'
...
---
_id: '29735'
abstract:
- lang: eng
text: 'The present volume has aimed to cover a broad range of approaches to agency
at work, exploring its relationship with professional learning and development.
Thus, the chapters included in this book have discussed the role of agency in
learning and development, considering a variety of working life contexts and applying
both conceptual and empirical perspectives. This final chapter provides an overview
of both the conceptual approaches and the empirical implementations. We see the
perspectives as complementary. From the content of the book, we discern the phenomena
as falling on two main dimensions, clustering at opposite ends of these dimensions.
Thus, the following contrasts are evidenced: (a) agency understood as a personal
capacity, vs. agency as behaviour, and (b) agency as an individual phenomenon,
vs. agency as a collective phenomenon. All the chapters emphasise that agency
is needed for learning and development. However, they differ in how they view
the relationships between the concepts. They also exhibit differences in the empirical
decisions taken and the research strategies chosen. In this concluding chapter,
we discuss the main similarities and differences emerging from the chapters. We
also highlight avenues for future research on agency and its relationship with
professional learning.'
author:
- first_name: Susanna
full_name: Paloniemi, Susanna
last_name: Paloniemi
- first_name: Michael
full_name: Goller, Michael
id: '30984'
last_name: Goller
orcid: 0000-0002-2820-9178
citation:
ama: 'Paloniemi S, Goller M. The Multifaceted Nature of Agency and Professional
Learning. In: Goller M, Paloniemi S, eds. Agency at Work: An Agentic Perspective
on Professional Learning and Development. Springer International Publishing;
2017:465-478. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-60943-0_23'
apa: 'Paloniemi, S., & Goller, M. (2017). The Multifaceted Nature of Agency
and Professional Learning. In M. Goller & S. Paloniemi (Eds.), Agency at
work: An agentic perspective on professional learning and development (pp.
465–478). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60943-0_23'
bibtex: '@inbook{Paloniemi_Goller_2017, place={Cham}, title={The Multifaceted Nature
of Agency and Professional Learning}, DOI={10.1007/978-3-319-60943-0_23},
booktitle={Agency at work: An agentic perspective on professional learning and
development}, publisher={Springer International Publishing}, author={Paloniemi,
Susanna and Goller, Michael}, editor={Goller, Michael and Paloniemi, Susanna},
year={2017}, pages={465–478} }'
chicago: 'Paloniemi, Susanna, and Michael Goller. “The Multifaceted Nature of Agency
and Professional Learning.” In Agency at Work: An Agentic Perspective on Professional
Learning and Development, edited by Michael Goller and Susanna Paloniemi,
465–78. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60943-0_23.'
ieee: 'S. Paloniemi and M. Goller, “The Multifaceted Nature of Agency and Professional
Learning,” in Agency at work: An agentic perspective on professional learning
and development, M. Goller and S. Paloniemi, Eds. Cham: Springer International
Publishing, 2017, pp. 465–478.'
mla: 'Paloniemi, Susanna, and Michael Goller. “The Multifaceted Nature of Agency
and Professional Learning.” Agency at Work: An Agentic Perspective on Professional
Learning and Development, edited by Michael Goller and Susanna Paloniemi,
Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp. 465–78, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-60943-0_23.'
short: 'S. Paloniemi, M. Goller, in: M. Goller, S. Paloniemi (Eds.), Agency at Work:
An Agentic Perspective on Professional Learning and Development, Springer International
Publishing, Cham, 2017, pp. 465–478.'
date_created: 2022-02-03T12:26:49Z
date_updated: 2022-02-03T13:26:36Z
department:
- _id: '452'
doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-60943-0_23
editor:
- first_name: Michael
full_name: Goller, Michael
last_name: Goller
- first_name: Susanna
full_name: Paloniemi, Susanna
last_name: Paloniemi
keyword:
- Agency
- Workplace learning
- Professional development
language:
- iso: eng
main_file_link:
- open_access: '1'
url: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-60943-0_23
oa: '1'
page: 465-478
place: Cham
publication: 'Agency at work: An agentic perspective on professional learning and
development'
publication_identifier:
isbn:
- '9783319609423'
- '9783319609430'
issn:
- 2210-5549
- 2210-5557
publication_status: published
publisher: Springer International Publishing
status: public
title: The Multifaceted Nature of Agency and Professional Learning
type: book_chapter
user_id: '79910'
year: '2017'
...