[{"project":[{"name":"TRR 318 ; TP C01: Gesundes Misstrauen in Erklärungen","_id":"124"}],"_id":"63611","user_id":"92810","department":[{"_id":"424"},{"_id":"660"}],"article_number":"1694367","article_type":"original","keyword":["appropriate trust","healthy distrust","visual attention","Theory of Visual Attention","human-AI interaction","Bayesian cognitive model","image classification"],"language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"type":"journal_article","publication":"Frontiers in Psychology","abstract":[{"text":"When humans interact with artificial intelligence (AI), one desideratum is appropriate trust. Typically, appropriate trust encompasses that humans trust AI except for instances in which they either explicitly notice AI errors or are suspicious that errors could be present. So far, appropriate trust or related notions have mainly been investigated by assessing trust and reliance. In this contribution, we argue that these assessments are insufficient to measure the complex aim of appropriate trust and the related notion of healthy distrust. We introduce and test the perspective of covert visual attention as an additional indicator for appropriate trust and draw conceptual connections to the notion of healthy distrust. To test the validity of our conceptualization, we formalize visual attention using the Theory of Visual Attention and measure its properties that are potentially relevant to appropriate trust and healthy distrust in an image classification task. Based on temporal-order judgment performance, we estimate participants' attentional capacity and attentional weight toward correct and incorrect mock-up AI classifications. We observe that misclassifications reduce attentional capacity compared to correct classifications. However, our results do not indicate that this reduction is beneficial for a subsequent judgment of the classifications. The attentional weighting is not affected by the classifications' correctness but by the difficulty of categorizing the stimuli themselves. We discuss these results, their implications, and the limited potential for using visual attention as an indicator of appropriate trust and healthy distrust.","lang":"eng"}],"status":"public","date_updated":"2026-01-14T14:29:03Z","publisher":"Frontiers Media SA","author":[{"first_name":"Tobias Martin","full_name":"Peters, Tobias Martin","id":"92810","last_name":"Peters","orcid":"0009-0008-5193-6243"},{"first_name":"Kai","orcid":"0000-0002-2879-2359","last_name":"Biermeier","full_name":"Biermeier, Kai","id":"55908"},{"first_name":"Ingrid","orcid":"0000-0003-2364-9489","last_name":"Scharlau","full_name":"Scharlau, Ingrid","id":"451"}],"date_created":"2026-01-14T14:21:59Z","volume":16,"title":"Assessing healthy distrust in human-AI interaction: interpreting changes in visual attention","doi":"10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367","publication_status":"published","publication_identifier":{"issn":["1664-1078"]},"year":"2026","citation":{"ama":"Peters TM, Biermeier K, Scharlau I. Assessing healthy distrust in human-AI interaction: interpreting changes in visual attention. <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>. 2026;16. doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367\">10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367</a>","chicago":"Peters, Tobias Martin, Kai Biermeier, and Ingrid Scharlau. “Assessing Healthy Distrust in Human-AI Interaction: Interpreting Changes in Visual Attention.” <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i> 16 (2026). <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367\">https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367</a>.","ieee":"T. M. Peters, K. Biermeier, and I. Scharlau, “Assessing healthy distrust in human-AI interaction: interpreting changes in visual attention,” <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>, vol. 16, Art. no. 1694367, 2026, doi: <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367\">10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367</a>.","apa":"Peters, T. M., Biermeier, K., &#38; Scharlau, I. (2026). Assessing healthy distrust in human-AI interaction: interpreting changes in visual attention. <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>, <i>16</i>, Article 1694367. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367\">https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367</a>","mla":"Peters, Tobias Martin, et al. “Assessing Healthy Distrust in Human-AI Interaction: Interpreting Changes in Visual Attention.” <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>, vol. 16, 1694367, Frontiers Media SA, 2026, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367\">10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367</a>.","bibtex":"@article{Peters_Biermeier_Scharlau_2026, title={Assessing healthy distrust in human-AI interaction: interpreting changes in visual attention}, volume={16}, DOI={<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367\">10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367</a>}, number={1694367}, journal={Frontiers in Psychology}, publisher={Frontiers Media SA}, author={Peters, Tobias Martin and Biermeier, Kai and Scharlau, Ingrid}, year={2026} }","short":"T.M. Peters, K. Biermeier, I. Scharlau, Frontiers in Psychology 16 (2026)."},"intvolume":"        16"},{"_id":"6075","department":[{"_id":"424"}],"user_id":"42165","article_type":"original","type":"journal_article","status":"public","date_updated":"2022-06-06T14:08:05Z","volume":79,"author":[{"first_name":"Alexander","full_name":"Krüger, Alexander","last_name":"Krüger"},{"first_name":"Jan","full_name":"Tünnermann, Jan","last_name":"Tünnermann"},{"id":"451","full_name":"Scharlau, Ingrid","orcid":"0000-0003-2364-9489","last_name":"Scharlau","first_name":"Ingrid"}],"doi":"10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6","publication_identifier":{"issn":["1943-3921"]},"publication_status":"published","page":"1593 - 1614","intvolume":"        79","citation":{"apa":"Krüger, A., Tünnermann, J., &#38; Scharlau, I. (2017). Measuring and modeling salience with the theory of visual attention. <i>Attention, Perception, &#38; Psychophysics</i>, <i>79</i>(6), 1593–1614. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6\">https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6</a>","bibtex":"@article{Krüger_Tünnermann_Scharlau_2017, title={Measuring and modeling salience with the theory of visual attention.}, volume={79}, DOI={<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6\">10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6</a>}, number={6}, journal={Attention, Perception, &#38; Psychophysics}, author={Krüger, Alexander and Tünnermann, Jan and Scharlau, Ingrid}, year={2017}, pages={1593–1614} }","short":"A. Krüger, J. Tünnermann, I. Scharlau, Attention, Perception, &#38; Psychophysics 79 (2017) 1593–1614.","mla":"Krüger, Alexander, et al. “Measuring and Modeling Salience with the Theory of Visual Attention.” <i>Attention, Perception, &#38; Psychophysics</i>, vol. 79, no. 6, 2017, pp. 1593–614, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6\">10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6</a>.","chicago":"Krüger, Alexander, Jan Tünnermann, and Ingrid Scharlau. “Measuring and Modeling Salience with the Theory of Visual Attention.” <i>Attention, Perception, &#38; Psychophysics</i> 79, no. 6 (2017): 1593–1614. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6\">https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6</a>.","ieee":"A. Krüger, J. Tünnermann, and I. Scharlau, “Measuring and modeling salience with the theory of visual attention.,” <i>Attention, Perception, &#38; Psychophysics</i>, vol. 79, no. 6, pp. 1593–1614, 2017, doi: <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6\">10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6</a>.","ama":"Krüger A, Tünnermann J, Scharlau I. Measuring and modeling salience with the theory of visual attention. <i>Attention, Perception, &#38; Psychophysics</i>. 2017;79(6):1593-1614. doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6\">10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6</a>"},"keyword":["Salience","Visual attention","Bayesian inference","Theory of visual attention","Computational modeling","Inference","Object Recognition","Theories","Visual Perception","Visual Attention","Luminance","Perceptual Orientation","Statistical Probability","Stimulus Salience","Computational Modeling"],"language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"publication":"Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics","abstract":[{"lang":"eng","text":"For almost three decades, the theory of visual attention (TVA) has been successful in mathematically describing and explaining a wide variety of phenomena in visual selection and recognition with high quantitative precision. Interestingly, the influence of feature contrast on attention has been included in TVA only recently, although it has been extensively studied outside the TVA framework. The present approach further develops this extension of TVA’s scope by measuring and modeling salience. An empirical measure of salience is achieved by linking different (orientation and luminance) contrasts to a TVA parameter. In the modeling part, the function relating feature contrasts to salience is described mathematically and tested against alternatives by Bayesian model comparison. This model comparison reveals that the power function is an appropriate model of salience growth in the dimensions of orientation and luminance contrast. Furthermore, if contrasts from the two dimensions are comb"}],"date_created":"2018-12-10T07:05:04Z","title":"Measuring and modeling salience with the theory of visual attention.","issue":"6","year":"2017"},{"status":"public","type":"journal_article","funded_apc":"1","_id":"6071","user_id":"42165","department":[{"_id":"424"}],"citation":{"apa":"Krüger, A., Tünnermann, J., &#38; Scharlau, I. (2016). Fast and conspicuous? Quantifying salience with the theory of visual attention. <i>Advances in Cognitive Psychology</i>, <i>12</i>(1), 20–38. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0184-1\">https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0184-1</a>","mla":"Krüger, Alexander, et al. “Fast and Conspicuous? Quantifying Salience with the Theory of Visual Attention.” <i>Advances in Cognitive Psychology</i>, vol. 12, no. 1, 2016, pp. 20–38, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0184-1\">10.5709/acp-0184-1</a>.","bibtex":"@article{Krüger_Tünnermann_Scharlau_2016, title={Fast and conspicuous? Quantifying salience with the theory of visual attention.}, volume={12}, DOI={<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0184-1\">10.5709/acp-0184-1</a>}, number={1}, journal={Advances in Cognitive Psychology}, author={Krüger, Alexander and Tünnermann, Jan and Scharlau, Ingrid}, year={2016}, pages={20–38} }","short":"A. Krüger, J. Tünnermann, I. Scharlau, Advances in Cognitive Psychology 12 (2016) 20–38.","ama":"Krüger A, Tünnermann J, Scharlau I. Fast and conspicuous? Quantifying salience with the theory of visual attention. <i>Advances in Cognitive Psychology</i>. 2016;12(1):20-38. doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0184-1\">10.5709/acp-0184-1</a>","chicago":"Krüger, Alexander, Jan Tünnermann, and Ingrid Scharlau. “Fast and Conspicuous? Quantifying Salience with the Theory of Visual Attention.” <i>Advances in Cognitive Psychology</i> 12, no. 1 (2016): 20–38. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0184-1\">https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0184-1</a>.","ieee":"A. Krüger, J. Tünnermann, and I. Scharlau, “Fast and conspicuous? Quantifying salience with the theory of visual attention.,” <i>Advances in Cognitive Psychology</i>, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 20–38, 2016, doi: <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0184-1\">10.5709/acp-0184-1</a>."},"intvolume":"        12","page":"20 - 38","publication_status":"published","publication_identifier":{"issn":["1895-1171"]},"main_file_link":[{"url":"http://ac-psych.org/en/download-pdf/volume/12/issue/1/id/185","open_access":"1"}],"doi":"10.5709/acp-0184-1","date_updated":"2022-06-06T16:21:09Z","oa":"1","author":[{"full_name":"Krüger, Alexander","last_name":"Krüger","first_name":"Alexander"},{"first_name":"Jan","last_name":"Tünnermann","full_name":"Tünnermann, Jan"},{"first_name":"Ingrid","id":"451","full_name":"Scharlau, Ingrid","last_name":"Scharlau","orcid":"0000-0003-2364-9489"}],"volume":12,"abstract":[{"lang":"eng","text":"Particular differences between an object and its surrounding cause salience, guide attention, and improve performance in various tasks. While much research has been dedicated to identifying which feature dimensions contribute to salience, much less regard has been paid to the quantitative strength of the salience caused by feature differences. Only a few studies systematically related salience effects to a common salience measure, and they are partly outdated in the light of new findings on the time course of salience effects. We propose Bundesen’s Theory of Visual Attention (TV A) as a theoretical basis for measuring salience and introduce an empirical and modeling approach to link this theory to data retrieved from temporal-order judgments. With this procedure, TV A becomes applicable to a broad range of salience-related stimulus material. Three experiments with orientation pop-out displays demonstrate the feasibility of the method. A 4th experiment substantiates its applicability t"}],"publication":"Advances in Cognitive Psychology","keyword":["salience","visual attention","Bayesian inference","theory of visual attention","computational modeling","Visual Attention","Computational Modeling","Inference","Judgment","Statistical Probability"],"language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"year":"2016","issue":"1","title":"Fast and conspicuous? Quantifying salience with the theory of visual attention.","date_created":"2018-12-10T07:04:15Z"},{"user_id":"42165","department":[{"_id":"424"}],"_id":"6080","language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"keyword":["cueing","temporal-order judgements","theory of visual attention (TVA)","peripheral cue","processing speed","stimulus encoding","prior entry","Attention","Cues","Face Perception","Judgment"],"type":"journal_article","publication":"Frontiers in Psychology","status":"public","abstract":[{"lang":"eng","text":"Peripheral visual cues lead to large shifts in psychometric distributions of temporal-order judgments. In one view, such shifts are attributed to attention speeding up processing of the cued stimulus, so-called prior entry. However, sometimes these shifts are so large that it is unlikely that they are caused by attention alone. Here we tested the prevalent alternative explanation that the cue is sometimes confused with the target on a perceptual level, bolstering the shift of the psychometric function. We applied a novel model of cued temporal-order judgments, derived from Bundesen’s Theory of Visual Attention.We found that cue–target confusions indeed contribute to shifting psychometric functions. However, cue-induced changes in the processing rates of the target stimuli play an important role, too. At smaller cueing intervals, the cue increased the processing speed of the target. At larger intervals, inhibition of return was predominant. Earlier studies of cued TOJs were insensitive"}],"author":[{"full_name":"Tünnermann, Jan","last_name":"Tünnermann","first_name":"Jan"},{"orcid":"0000-0003-2364-9489","last_name":"Scharlau","full_name":"Scharlau, Ingrid","id":"451","first_name":"Ingrid"}],"date_created":"2018-12-10T07:06:09Z","volume":7,"oa":"1","date_updated":"2022-06-06T16:29:50Z","main_file_link":[{"url":"https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442/full","open_access":"1"}],"doi":"10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442","title":"Peripheral visual cues: Their fate in processing and effects on attention and temporal-order perception.","publication_status":"published","publication_identifier":{"issn":["1664-1078"]},"citation":{"apa":"Tünnermann, J., &#38; Scharlau, I. (2016). Peripheral visual cues: Their fate in processing and effects on attention and temporal-order perception. <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>, <i>7</i>. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442\">https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442</a>","short":"J. Tünnermann, I. Scharlau, Frontiers in Psychology 7 (2016).","bibtex":"@article{Tünnermann_Scharlau_2016, title={Peripheral visual cues: Their fate in processing and effects on attention and temporal-order perception.}, volume={7}, DOI={<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442\">10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442</a>}, journal={Frontiers in Psychology}, author={Tünnermann, Jan and Scharlau, Ingrid}, year={2016} }","mla":"Tünnermann, Jan, and Ingrid Scharlau. “Peripheral Visual Cues: Their Fate in Processing and Effects on Attention and Temporal-Order Perception.” <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>, vol. 7, 2016, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442\">10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442</a>.","ama":"Tünnermann J, Scharlau I. Peripheral visual cues: Their fate in processing and effects on attention and temporal-order perception. <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>. 2016;7. doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442\">10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442</a>","ieee":"J. Tünnermann and I. Scharlau, “Peripheral visual cues: Their fate in processing and effects on attention and temporal-order perception.,” <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i>, vol. 7, 2016, doi: <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442\">10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442</a>.","chicago":"Tünnermann, Jan, and Ingrid Scharlau. “Peripheral Visual Cues: Their Fate in Processing and Effects on Attention and Temporal-Order Perception.” <i>Frontiers in Psychology</i> 7 (2016). <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442\">https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442</a>."},"intvolume":"         7","year":"2016"}]