---
_id: '63611'
abstract:
- lang: eng
text: When humans interact with artificial intelligence (AI), one desideratum is
appropriate trust. Typically, appropriate trust encompasses that humans trust
AI except for instances in which they either explicitly notice AI errors or are
suspicious that errors could be present. So far, appropriate trust or related
notions have mainly been investigated by assessing trust and reliance. In this
contribution, we argue that these assessments are insufficient to measure the
complex aim of appropriate trust and the related notion of healthy distrust. We
introduce and test the perspective of covert visual attention as an additional
indicator for appropriate trust and draw conceptual connections to the notion
of healthy distrust. To test the validity of our conceptualization, we formalize
visual attention using the Theory of Visual Attention and measure its properties
that are potentially relevant to appropriate trust and healthy distrust in an
image classification task. Based on temporal-order judgment performance, we estimate
participants' attentional capacity and attentional weight toward correct and incorrect
mock-up AI classifications. We observe that misclassifications reduce attentional
capacity compared to correct classifications. However, our results do not indicate
that this reduction is beneficial for a subsequent judgment of the classifications.
The attentional weighting is not affected by the classifications' correctness
but by the difficulty of categorizing the stimuli themselves. We discuss these
results, their implications, and the limited potential for using visual attention
as an indicator of appropriate trust and healthy distrust.
article_number: '1694367'
article_type: original
author:
- first_name: Tobias Martin
full_name: Peters, Tobias Martin
id: '92810'
last_name: Peters
orcid: 0009-0008-5193-6243
- first_name: Kai
full_name: Biermeier, Kai
id: '55908'
last_name: Biermeier
orcid: 0000-0002-2879-2359
- first_name: Ingrid
full_name: Scharlau, Ingrid
id: '451'
last_name: Scharlau
orcid: 0000-0003-2364-9489
citation:
ama: 'Peters TM, Biermeier K, Scharlau I. Assessing healthy distrust in human-AI
interaction: interpreting changes in visual attention. Frontiers in Psychology.
2026;16. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367'
apa: 'Peters, T. M., Biermeier, K., & Scharlau, I. (2026). Assessing healthy
distrust in human-AI interaction: interpreting changes in visual attention. Frontiers
in Psychology, 16, Article 1694367. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367'
bibtex: '@article{Peters_Biermeier_Scharlau_2026, title={Assessing healthy distrust
in human-AI interaction: interpreting changes in visual attention}, volume={16},
DOI={10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367},
number={1694367}, journal={Frontiers in Psychology}, publisher={Frontiers Media
SA}, author={Peters, Tobias Martin and Biermeier, Kai and Scharlau, Ingrid}, year={2026}
}'
chicago: 'Peters, Tobias Martin, Kai Biermeier, and Ingrid Scharlau. “Assessing
Healthy Distrust in Human-AI Interaction: Interpreting Changes in Visual Attention.”
Frontiers in Psychology 16 (2026). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367.'
ieee: 'T. M. Peters, K. Biermeier, and I. Scharlau, “Assessing healthy distrust
in human-AI interaction: interpreting changes in visual attention,” Frontiers
in Psychology, vol. 16, Art. no. 1694367, 2026, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367.'
mla: 'Peters, Tobias Martin, et al. “Assessing Healthy Distrust in Human-AI Interaction:
Interpreting Changes in Visual Attention.” Frontiers in Psychology, vol.
16, 1694367, Frontiers Media SA, 2026, doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367.'
short: T.M. Peters, K. Biermeier, I. Scharlau, Frontiers in Psychology 16 (2026).
date_created: 2026-01-14T14:21:59Z
date_updated: 2026-01-14T14:29:03Z
department:
- _id: '424'
- _id: '660'
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1694367
intvolume: ' 16'
keyword:
- appropriate trust
- healthy distrust
- visual attention
- Theory of Visual Attention
- human-AI interaction
- Bayesian cognitive model
- image classification
language:
- iso: eng
project:
- _id: '124'
name: 'TRR 318 ; TP C01: Gesundes Misstrauen in Erklärungen'
publication: Frontiers in Psychology
publication_identifier:
issn:
- 1664-1078
publication_status: published
publisher: Frontiers Media SA
status: public
title: 'Assessing healthy distrust in human-AI interaction: interpreting changes in
visual attention'
type: journal_article
user_id: '92810'
volume: 16
year: '2026'
...
---
_id: '6075'
abstract:
- lang: eng
text: For almost three decades, the theory of visual attention (TVA) has been successful
in mathematically describing and explaining a wide variety of phenomena in visual
selection and recognition with high quantitative precision. Interestingly, the
influence of feature contrast on attention has been included in TVA only recently,
although it has been extensively studied outside the TVA framework. The present
approach further develops this extension of TVA’s scope by measuring and modeling
salience. An empirical measure of salience is achieved by linking different (orientation
and luminance) contrasts to a TVA parameter. In the modeling part, the function
relating feature contrasts to salience is described mathematically and tested
against alternatives by Bayesian model comparison. This model comparison reveals
that the power function is an appropriate model of salience growth in the dimensions
of orientation and luminance contrast. Furthermore, if contrasts from the two
dimensions are comb
article_type: original
author:
- first_name: Alexander
full_name: Krüger, Alexander
last_name: Krüger
- first_name: Jan
full_name: Tünnermann, Jan
last_name: Tünnermann
- first_name: Ingrid
full_name: Scharlau, Ingrid
id: '451'
last_name: Scharlau
orcid: 0000-0003-2364-9489
citation:
ama: Krüger A, Tünnermann J, Scharlau I. Measuring and modeling salience with the
theory of visual attention. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics.
2017;79(6):1593-1614. doi:10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6
apa: Krüger, A., Tünnermann, J., & Scharlau, I. (2017). Measuring and modeling
salience with the theory of visual attention. Attention, Perception, &
Psychophysics, 79(6), 1593–1614. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6
bibtex: '@article{Krüger_Tünnermann_Scharlau_2017, title={Measuring and modeling
salience with the theory of visual attention.}, volume={79}, DOI={10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6},
number={6}, journal={Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics}, author={Krüger,
Alexander and Tünnermann, Jan and Scharlau, Ingrid}, year={2017}, pages={1593–1614}
}'
chicago: 'Krüger, Alexander, Jan Tünnermann, and Ingrid Scharlau. “Measuring and
Modeling Salience with the Theory of Visual Attention.” Attention, Perception,
& Psychophysics 79, no. 6 (2017): 1593–1614. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6.'
ieee: 'A. Krüger, J. Tünnermann, and I. Scharlau, “Measuring and modeling salience
with the theory of visual attention.,” Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics,
vol. 79, no. 6, pp. 1593–1614, 2017, doi: 10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6.'
mla: Krüger, Alexander, et al. “Measuring and Modeling Salience with the Theory
of Visual Attention.” Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, vol.
79, no. 6, 2017, pp. 1593–614, doi:10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6.
short: A. Krüger, J. Tünnermann, I. Scharlau, Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics
79 (2017) 1593–1614.
date_created: 2018-12-10T07:05:04Z
date_updated: 2022-06-06T14:08:05Z
department:
- _id: '424'
doi: 10.3758/s13414-017-1325-6
intvolume: ' 79'
issue: '6'
keyword:
- Salience
- Visual attention
- Bayesian inference
- Theory of visual attention
- Computational modeling
- Inference
- Object Recognition
- Theories
- Visual Perception
- Visual Attention
- Luminance
- Perceptual Orientation
- Statistical Probability
- Stimulus Salience
- Computational Modeling
language:
- iso: eng
page: 1593 - 1614
publication: Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics
publication_identifier:
issn:
- 1943-3921
publication_status: published
status: public
title: Measuring and modeling salience with the theory of visual attention.
type: journal_article
user_id: '42165'
volume: 79
year: '2017'
...
---
_id: '6071'
abstract:
- lang: eng
text: Particular differences between an object and its surrounding cause salience,
guide attention, and improve performance in various tasks. While much research
has been dedicated to identifying which feature dimensions contribute to salience,
much less regard has been paid to the quantitative strength of the salience caused
by feature differences. Only a few studies systematically related salience effects
to a common salience measure, and they are partly outdated in the light of new
findings on the time course of salience effects. We propose Bundesen’s Theory
of Visual Attention (TV A) as a theoretical basis for measuring salience and introduce
an empirical and modeling approach to link this theory to data retrieved from
temporal-order judgments. With this procedure, TV A becomes applicable to a broad
range of salience-related stimulus material. Three experiments with orientation
pop-out displays demonstrate the feasibility of the method. A 4th experiment substantiates
its applicability t
author:
- first_name: Alexander
full_name: Krüger, Alexander
last_name: Krüger
- first_name: Jan
full_name: Tünnermann, Jan
last_name: Tünnermann
- first_name: Ingrid
full_name: Scharlau, Ingrid
id: '451'
last_name: Scharlau
orcid: 0000-0003-2364-9489
citation:
ama: Krüger A, Tünnermann J, Scharlau I. Fast and conspicuous? Quantifying salience
with the theory of visual attention. Advances in Cognitive Psychology.
2016;12(1):20-38. doi:10.5709/acp-0184-1
apa: Krüger, A., Tünnermann, J., & Scharlau, I. (2016). Fast and conspicuous?
Quantifying salience with the theory of visual attention. Advances in Cognitive
Psychology, 12(1), 20–38. https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0184-1
bibtex: '@article{Krüger_Tünnermann_Scharlau_2016, title={Fast and conspicuous?
Quantifying salience with the theory of visual attention.}, volume={12}, DOI={10.5709/acp-0184-1}, number={1},
journal={Advances in Cognitive Psychology}, author={Krüger, Alexander and Tünnermann,
Jan and Scharlau, Ingrid}, year={2016}, pages={20–38} }'
chicago: 'Krüger, Alexander, Jan Tünnermann, and Ingrid Scharlau. “Fast and Conspicuous?
Quantifying Salience with the Theory of Visual Attention.” Advances in Cognitive
Psychology 12, no. 1 (2016): 20–38. https://doi.org/10.5709/acp-0184-1.'
ieee: 'A. Krüger, J. Tünnermann, and I. Scharlau, “Fast and conspicuous? Quantifying
salience with the theory of visual attention.,” Advances in Cognitive Psychology,
vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 20–38, 2016, doi: 10.5709/acp-0184-1.'
mla: Krüger, Alexander, et al. “Fast and Conspicuous? Quantifying Salience with
the Theory of Visual Attention.” Advances in Cognitive Psychology, vol.
12, no. 1, 2016, pp. 20–38, doi:10.5709/acp-0184-1.
short: A. Krüger, J. Tünnermann, I. Scharlau, Advances in Cognitive Psychology 12
(2016) 20–38.
date_created: 2018-12-10T07:04:15Z
date_updated: 2022-06-06T16:21:09Z
department:
- _id: '424'
doi: 10.5709/acp-0184-1
funded_apc: '1'
intvolume: ' 12'
issue: '1'
keyword:
- salience
- visual attention
- Bayesian inference
- theory of visual attention
- computational modeling
- Visual Attention
- Computational Modeling
- Inference
- Judgment
- Statistical Probability
language:
- iso: eng
main_file_link:
- open_access: '1'
url: http://ac-psych.org/en/download-pdf/volume/12/issue/1/id/185
oa: '1'
page: 20 - 38
publication: Advances in Cognitive Psychology
publication_identifier:
issn:
- 1895-1171
publication_status: published
status: public
title: Fast and conspicuous? Quantifying salience with the theory of visual attention.
type: journal_article
user_id: '42165'
volume: 12
year: '2016'
...
---
_id: '6080'
abstract:
- lang: eng
text: Peripheral visual cues lead to large shifts in psychometric distributions
of temporal-order judgments. In one view, such shifts are attributed to attention
speeding up processing of the cued stimulus, so-called prior entry. However, sometimes
these shifts are so large that it is unlikely that they are caused by attention
alone. Here we tested the prevalent alternative explanation that the cue is sometimes
confused with the target on a perceptual level, bolstering the shift of the psychometric
function. We applied a novel model of cued temporal-order judgments, derived from
Bundesen’s Theory of Visual Attention.We found that cue–target confusions indeed
contribute to shifting psychometric functions. However, cue-induced changes in
the processing rates of the target stimuli play an important role, too. At smaller
cueing intervals, the cue increased the processing speed of the target. At larger
intervals, inhibition of return was predominant. Earlier studies of cued TOJs
were insensitive
author:
- first_name: Jan
full_name: Tünnermann, Jan
last_name: Tünnermann
- first_name: Ingrid
full_name: Scharlau, Ingrid
id: '451'
last_name: Scharlau
orcid: 0000-0003-2364-9489
citation:
ama: 'Tünnermann J, Scharlau I. Peripheral visual cues: Their fate in processing
and effects on attention and temporal-order perception. Frontiers in Psychology.
2016;7. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442'
apa: 'Tünnermann, J., & Scharlau, I. (2016). Peripheral visual cues: Their fate
in processing and effects on attention and temporal-order perception. Frontiers
in Psychology, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442'
bibtex: '@article{Tünnermann_Scharlau_2016, title={Peripheral visual cues: Their
fate in processing and effects on attention and temporal-order perception.}, volume={7},
DOI={10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442},
journal={Frontiers in Psychology}, author={Tünnermann, Jan and Scharlau, Ingrid},
year={2016} }'
chicago: 'Tünnermann, Jan, and Ingrid Scharlau. “Peripheral Visual Cues: Their Fate
in Processing and Effects on Attention and Temporal-Order Perception.” Frontiers
in Psychology 7 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442.'
ieee: 'J. Tünnermann and I. Scharlau, “Peripheral visual cues: Their fate in processing
and effects on attention and temporal-order perception.,” Frontiers in Psychology,
vol. 7, 2016, doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442.'
mla: 'Tünnermann, Jan, and Ingrid Scharlau. “Peripheral Visual Cues: Their Fate
in Processing and Effects on Attention and Temporal-Order Perception.” Frontiers
in Psychology, vol. 7, 2016, doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442.'
short: J. Tünnermann, I. Scharlau, Frontiers in Psychology 7 (2016).
date_created: 2018-12-10T07:06:09Z
date_updated: 2022-06-06T16:29:50Z
department:
- _id: '424'
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442
intvolume: ' 7'
keyword:
- cueing
- temporal-order judgements
- theory of visual attention (TVA)
- peripheral cue
- processing speed
- stimulus encoding
- prior entry
- Attention
- Cues
- Face Perception
- Judgment
language:
- iso: eng
main_file_link:
- open_access: '1'
url: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01442/full
oa: '1'
publication: Frontiers in Psychology
publication_identifier:
issn:
- 1664-1078
publication_status: published
status: public
title: 'Peripheral visual cues: Their fate in processing and effects on attention
and temporal-order perception.'
type: journal_article
user_id: '42165'
volume: 7
year: '2016'
...