[{"file":[{"date_created":"2025-12-01T21:02:20Z","creator":"hbuschme","content_type":"application/pdf","success":1,"file_id":"62730","access_level":"closed","file_size":10114981,"file_name":"Buschmeier-etal-2025-COGSYS.pdf","date_updated":"2025-12-01T21:02:20Z","relation":"main_file"}],"date_created":"2025-09-08T14:24:32Z","type":"journal_article","keyword":["understanding","explaining","explanations","explainable","AI","interdisciplinarity","comprehension","enabledness","agency"],"department":[{"_id":"660"}],"publication":"Cognitive Systems Research","abstract":[{"text":"Explainability has become an important topic in computer science and artificial intelligence, leading to a subfield called Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI). The goal of providing or seeking explanations is to achieve (better) ‘understanding’ on the part of the explainee. However, what it means to ‘understand’ is still not clearly defined, and the concept itself is rarely the subject of scientific investigation. This conceptual article aims to present a model of forms of understanding for XAI-explanations and beyond. From an interdisciplinary perspective bringing together computer science, linguistics, sociology, philosophy and psychology, a definition of understanding and its forms, assessment, and dynamics during the process of giving everyday explanations are explored. Two types of understanding are considered as possible outcomes of explanations, namely enabledness, ‘knowing how’ to do or decide something, and comprehension, ‘knowing that’ – both in different degrees (from shallow to deep). Explanations regularly start with shallow understanding in a specific domain and can lead to deep comprehension and enabledness of the explanandum, which we see as a prerequisite for human users to gain agency. In this process, the increase of comprehension and enabledness are highly interdependent. Against the background of this systematization, special challenges of understanding in XAI are discussed.","lang":"eng"}],"article_number":"101419","main_file_link":[{"open_access":"1","url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1389041725000993?via%3Dihub"}],"language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"doi":"10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419","year":"2025","title":"Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations","author":[{"full_name":"Buschmeier, Hendrik","orcid":"0000-0002-9613-5713","first_name":"Hendrik","last_name":"Buschmeier","id":"76456"},{"id":"27152","first_name":"Heike M.","last_name":"Buhl","full_name":"Buhl, Heike M."},{"full_name":"Kern, Friederike","first_name":"Friederike","last_name":"Kern"},{"full_name":"Grimminger, Angela","first_name":"Angela","last_name":"Grimminger","id":"57578"},{"id":"50995","first_name":"Helen","last_name":"Beierling","full_name":"Beierling, Helen"},{"full_name":"Fisher, Josephine Beryl","first_name":"Josephine Beryl","last_name":"Fisher","orcid":"0000-0002-9997-9241","id":"56345"},{"id":"93405","full_name":"Groß, André","last_name":"Groß","first_name":"André","orcid":"0000-0002-9593-7220"},{"id":"68836","full_name":"Horwath, Ilona","last_name":"Horwath","first_name":"Ilona"},{"first_name":"Nils","last_name":"Klowait","orcid":"0000-0002-7347-099X","full_name":"Klowait, Nils","id":"98454"},{"full_name":"Lazarov, Stefan Teodorov","orcid":"0009-0009-0892-9483","first_name":"Stefan Teodorov","last_name":"Lazarov","id":"90345"},{"last_name":"Lenke","first_name":"Michael","full_name":"Lenke, Michael"},{"first_name":"Vivien","last_name":"Lohmer","full_name":"Lohmer, Vivien"},{"full_name":"Rohlfing, Katharina","first_name":"Katharina","last_name":"Rohlfing","orcid":"0000-0002-5676-8233","id":"50352"},{"id":"451","last_name":"Scharlau","first_name":"Ingrid","orcid":"0000-0003-2364-9489","full_name":"Scharlau, Ingrid"},{"last_name":"Singh","orcid":"0000-0002-7789-1521","first_name":"Amit","full_name":"Singh, Amit","id":"91018"},{"first_name":"Lutz","last_name":"Terfloth","full_name":"Terfloth, Lutz","id":"37320"},{"id":"86589","full_name":"Vollmer, Anna-Lisa","first_name":"Anna-Lisa","last_name":"Vollmer"},{"first_name":"Yu","last_name":"Wang","full_name":"Wang, Yu"},{"last_name":"Wilmes","first_name":"Annedore","full_name":"Wilmes, Annedore"},{"full_name":"Wrede, Britta","first_name":"Britta","last_name":"Wrede"}],"publication_status":"published","date_updated":"2025-12-05T15:32:25Z","article_type":"original","intvolume":"        94","oa":"1","file_date_updated":"2025-12-01T21:02:20Z","citation":{"ieee":"H. Buschmeier <i>et al.</i>, “Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations,” <i>Cognitive Systems Research</i>, vol. 94, Art. no. 101419, 2025, doi: <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419\">10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419</a>.","apa":"Buschmeier, H., Buhl, H. M., Kern, F., Grimminger, A., Beierling, H., Fisher, J. B., Groß, A., Horwath, I., Klowait, N., Lazarov, S. T., Lenke, M., Lohmer, V., Rohlfing, K., Scharlau, I., Singh, A., Terfloth, L., Vollmer, A.-L., Wang, Y., Wilmes, A., &#38; Wrede, B. (2025). Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations. <i>Cognitive Systems Research</i>, <i>94</i>, Article 101419. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419\">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419</a>","short":"H. Buschmeier, H.M. Buhl, F. Kern, A. Grimminger, H. Beierling, J.B. Fisher, A. Groß, I. Horwath, N. Klowait, S.T. Lazarov, M. Lenke, V. Lohmer, K. Rohlfing, I. Scharlau, A. Singh, L. Terfloth, A.-L. Vollmer, Y. Wang, A. Wilmes, B. Wrede, Cognitive Systems Research 94 (2025).","chicago":"Buschmeier, Hendrik, Heike M. Buhl, Friederike Kern, Angela Grimminger, Helen Beierling, Josephine Beryl Fisher, André Groß, et al. “Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations.” <i>Cognitive Systems Research</i> 94 (2025). <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419\">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419</a>.","mla":"Buschmeier, Hendrik, et al. “Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations.” <i>Cognitive Systems Research</i>, vol. 94, 101419, 2025, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419\">10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419</a>.","bibtex":"@article{Buschmeier_Buhl_Kern_Grimminger_Beierling_Fisher_Groß_Horwath_Klowait_Lazarov_et al._2025, title={Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations}, volume={94}, DOI={<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419\">10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419</a>}, number={101419}, journal={Cognitive Systems Research}, author={Buschmeier, Hendrik and Buhl, Heike M. and Kern, Friederike and Grimminger, Angela and Beierling, Helen and Fisher, Josephine Beryl and Groß, André and Horwath, Ilona and Klowait, Nils and Lazarov, Stefan Teodorov and et al.}, year={2025} }","ama":"Buschmeier H, Buhl HM, Kern F, et al. Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations. <i>Cognitive Systems Research</i>. 2025;94. doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419\">10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419</a>"},"quality_controlled":"1","project":[{"_id":"111","name":"TRR 318; TP A01: Adaptives Erklären"},{"name":"TRR 318; TP A02: Verstehensprozess einer Erklärung beobachten und auswerten","_id":"112"},{"_id":"113","name":"TRR 318 - Subproject A3"},{"name":"TRR 318; TP A04: Integration des technischen Modells in das Partnermodell bei der Erklärung von digitalen Artefakten","_id":"114"},{"_id":"115","name":"TRR 318; TP A05: Echtzeitmessung der Aufmerksamkeit im Mensch-Roboter-Erklärdialog"},{"name":"TRR 318 - Subproject B3","_id":"122"},{"name":"TRR 318 - Subproject B5","_id":"123"},{"name":"TRR 318 - Project Area Ö","_id":"119"}],"_id":"61156","user_id":"57578","ddc":["006"],"volume":94,"status":"public","has_accepted_license":"1"},{"volume":3,"user_id":"451","funded_apc":"1","_id":"58109","page":"1474924","status":"public","oa":"1","project":[{"_id":"127","name":"TRR 318 - C4: TRR 318 - Subproject C4 - Metaphern als Werkzeug des Erklärens"}],"quality_controlled":"1","citation":{"mla":"Scharlau, Ingrid, et al. “When to Use a Metaphor: Metaphors in Dialogical Explanations with Addressees of Different Expertise.” <i>Frontiers in Language Sciences</i>, vol. 3, 2024, p. 1474924.","bibtex":"@article{Scharlau_Körber_Sengupta_Wachsmuth_2024, title={When to use a metaphor: Metaphors in dialogical explanations with addressees of different expertise}, volume={3}, journal={Frontiers in Language Sciences}, author={Scharlau, Ingrid and Körber, Miriam and Sengupta, Meghdut and Wachsmuth, Henning}, year={2024}, pages={1474924} }","ama":"Scharlau I, Körber M, Sengupta M, Wachsmuth H. When to use a metaphor: Metaphors in dialogical explanations with addressees of different expertise. <i>Frontiers in Language Sciences</i>. 2024;3:1474924.","ieee":"I. Scharlau, M. Körber, M. Sengupta, and H. Wachsmuth, “When to use a metaphor: Metaphors in dialogical explanations with addressees of different expertise,” <i>Frontiers in Language Sciences</i>, vol. 3, p. 1474924, 2024.","apa":"Scharlau, I., Körber, M., Sengupta, M., &#38; Wachsmuth, H. (2024). When to use a metaphor: Metaphors in dialogical explanations with addressees of different expertise. <i>Frontiers in Language Sciences</i>, <i>3</i>, 1474924.","chicago":"Scharlau, Ingrid, Miriam Körber, Meghdut Sengupta, and Henning Wachsmuth. “When to Use a Metaphor: Metaphors in Dialogical Explanations with Addressees of Different Expertise.” <i>Frontiers in Language Sciences</i> 3 (2024): 1474924.","short":"I. Scharlau, M. Körber, M. Sengupta, H. Wachsmuth, Frontiers in Language Sciences 3 (2024) 1474924."},"language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"main_file_link":[{"url":"https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/language-sciences/articles/10.3389/flang.2024.1474924/full","open_access":"1"}],"article_type":"original","intvolume":"         3","date_updated":"2025-01-08T11:59:34Z","author":[{"id":"451","first_name":"Ingrid","last_name":"Scharlau","orcid":"0000-0003-2364-9489","full_name":"Scharlau, Ingrid"},{"last_name":"Körber","first_name":"Miriam","full_name":"Körber, Miriam"},{"last_name":"Sengupta","first_name":"Meghdut","full_name":"Sengupta, Meghdut"},{"full_name":"Wachsmuth, Henning","first_name":"Henning","last_name":"Wachsmuth"}],"title":"When to use a metaphor: Metaphors in dialogical explanations with addressees of different expertise","year":"2024","department":[{"_id":"660"}],"type":"journal_article","keyword":["metaphor","conceptual metaphor","conceptual metaphor theory","metaphor usage","explaining","explanation"],"date_created":"2025-01-08T11:59:24Z","abstract":[{"lang":"eng","text":"The present study aims to understand how metaphors are used in explanations. According to many current theories, metaphors have a conceptual function for the understanding of abstract objects. From this theoretical assumption, we derived the hypothesis that the lower the expertise of the addressee of an explanation, the more metaphors should be used. We tested this hypothesis on a relatively natural data set of 24 published videos with close to 100,000 words overall in which experts explain abstract, mostly scientific concepts to persons of different expertise, varying from minimal (children) to profound (expert). Contrary to our expectations, the frequency of metaphors did not decrease with expertise, but actually increased. This increase could be statistically substantiated with higher differences in expertise. The study contributes to a better understanding of the use of metaphors in actual explanatory processes and how metaphor use depends on contextual factors. It thus supports the expansion of the conceptual and linguistic perspective on metaphors to include the aspect of how metaphors are used by speakers."}],"publication":"Frontiers in Language Sciences"},{"publication":"Frontiers in Robotics and AI","abstract":[{"text":"Explanation has been identified as an important capability for AI-based systems, but research on systematic strategies for achieving understanding in interaction with such systems is still sparse. Negation is a linguistic strategy that is often used in explanations. It creates a contrast space between the affirmed and the negated item that enriches explaining processes with additional contextual information. While negation in human speech has been shown to lead to higher processing costs and worse task performance in terms of recall or action execution when used in isolation, it can decrease processing costs when used in context. So far, it has not been considered as a guiding strategy for explanations in human-robot interaction. We conducted an empirical study to investigate the use of negation as a guiding strategy in explanatory human-robot dialogue, in which a virtual robot explains tasks and possible actions to a human explainee to solve them in terms of gestures on a touchscreen. Our results show that negation vs. affirmation 1) increases processing costs measured as reaction time and 2) increases several aspects of task performance. While there was no significant effect of negation on the number of initially correctly executed gestures, we found a significantly lower number of attempts—measured as breaks in the finger movement data before the correct gesture was carried out—when being instructed through a negation. We further found that the gestures significantly resembled the presented prototype gesture more following an instruction with a negation as opposed to an affirmation. Also, the participants rated the benefit of contrastive vs. affirmative explanations significantly higher. Repeating the instructions decreased the effects of negation, yielding similar processing costs and task performance measures for negation and affirmation after several iterations. We discuss our results with respect to possible effects of negation on linguistic processing of explanations and limitations of our study.","lang":"eng"}],"date_created":"2023-10-30T09:29:16Z","department":[{"_id":"749"}],"type":"journal_article","keyword":["HRI","XAI","negation","understanding","explaining","touch interaction","gesture"],"author":[{"last_name":"Groß","first_name":"A.","full_name":"Groß, A."},{"id":"91018","last_name":"Singh","orcid":"0000-0002-7789-1521","first_name":"Amit","full_name":"Singh, Amit"},{"id":"38219","last_name":"Banh","first_name":"Ngoc Chi","orcid":"0000-0002-5946-4542","full_name":"Banh, Ngoc Chi"},{"last_name":"Richter","first_name":"B.","full_name":"Richter, B."},{"full_name":"Scharlau, Ingrid","last_name":"Scharlau","first_name":"Ingrid","orcid":"0000-0003-2364-9489","id":"451"},{"full_name":"Rohlfing, Katharina J.","first_name":"Katharina J.","last_name":"Rohlfing","id":"50352"},{"full_name":"Wrede, B.","first_name":"B.","last_name":"Wrede"}],"year":"2023","title":"Scaffolding the human partner by contrastive guidance in an explanatory human-robot dialogue","intvolume":"        10","article_type":"original","date_updated":"2024-06-26T08:01:50Z","publication_status":"published","language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"main_file_link":[{"url":"https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184/full","open_access":"1"}],"doi":"10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184","citation":{"ama":"Groß A, Singh A, Banh NC, et al. Scaffolding the human partner by contrastive guidance in an explanatory human-robot dialogue. <i>Frontiers in Robotics and AI</i>. 2023;10. doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184\">10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184</a>","bibtex":"@article{Groß_Singh_Banh_Richter_Scharlau_Rohlfing_Wrede_2023, title={Scaffolding the human partner by contrastive guidance in an explanatory human-robot dialogue}, volume={10}, DOI={<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184\">10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184</a>}, journal={Frontiers in Robotics and AI}, author={Groß, A. and Singh, Amit and Banh, Ngoc Chi and Richter, B. and Scharlau, Ingrid and Rohlfing, Katharina J. and Wrede, B.}, year={2023} }","mla":"Groß, A., et al. “Scaffolding the Human Partner by Contrastive Guidance in an Explanatory Human-Robot Dialogue.” <i>Frontiers in Robotics and AI</i>, vol. 10, 2023, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184\">10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184</a>.","chicago":"Groß, A., Amit Singh, Ngoc Chi Banh, B. Richter, Ingrid Scharlau, Katharina J. Rohlfing, and B. Wrede. “Scaffolding the Human Partner by Contrastive Guidance in an Explanatory Human-Robot Dialogue.” <i>Frontiers in Robotics and AI</i> 10 (2023). <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184\">https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184</a>.","short":"A. Groß, A. Singh, N.C. Banh, B. Richter, I. Scharlau, K.J. Rohlfing, B. Wrede, Frontiers in Robotics and AI 10 (2023).","apa":"Groß, A., Singh, A., Banh, N. C., Richter, B., Scharlau, I., Rohlfing, K. J., &#38; Wrede, B. (2023). Scaffolding the human partner by contrastive guidance in an explanatory human-robot dialogue. <i>Frontiers in Robotics and AI</i>, <i>10</i>. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184\">https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184</a>","ieee":"A. Groß <i>et al.</i>, “Scaffolding the human partner by contrastive guidance in an explanatory human-robot dialogue,” <i>Frontiers in Robotics and AI</i>, vol. 10, 2023, doi: <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184\">10.3389/frobt.2023.1236184</a>."},"project":[{"name":"TRR 318 - A05: TRR 318 - Echtzeitmessung der Aufmerksamkeit im Mensch-Roboter-Erklärdialog (Teilprojekt A05)","_id":"115","grant_number":"438445824"}],"quality_controlled":"1","oa":"1","status":"public","_id":"48543","funded_apc":"1","volume":10,"user_id":"38219"}]