---
_id: '61156'
abstract:
- lang: eng
  text: Explainability has become an important topic in computer science and artificial
    intelligence, leading to a subfield called Explainable Artificial Intelligence
    (XAI). The goal of providing or seeking explanations is to achieve (better) ‘understanding’
    on the part of the explainee. However, what it means to ‘understand’ is still
    not clearly defined, and the concept itself is rarely the subject of scientific
    investigation. This conceptual article aims to present a model of forms of understanding
    for XAI-explanations and beyond. From an interdisciplinary perspective bringing
    together computer science, linguistics, sociology, philosophy and psychology,
    a definition of understanding and its forms, assessment, and dynamics during the
    process of giving everyday explanations are explored. Two types of understanding
    are considered as possible outcomes of explanations, namely enabledness, ‘knowing
    how’ to do or decide something, and comprehension, ‘knowing that’ – both in different
    degrees (from shallow to deep). Explanations regularly start with shallow understanding
    in a specific domain and can lead to deep comprehension and enabledness of the
    explanandum, which we see as a prerequisite for human users to gain agency. In
    this process, the increase of comprehension and enabledness are highly interdependent.
    Against the background of this systematization, special challenges of understanding
    in XAI are discussed.
article_number: '101419'
article_type: original
author:
- first_name: Hendrik
  full_name: Buschmeier, Hendrik
  id: '76456'
  last_name: Buschmeier
  orcid: 0000-0002-9613-5713
- first_name: Heike M.
  full_name: Buhl, Heike M.
  id: '27152'
  last_name: Buhl
- first_name: Friederike
  full_name: Kern, Friederike
  last_name: Kern
- first_name: Angela
  full_name: Grimminger, Angela
  id: '57578'
  last_name: Grimminger
- first_name: Helen
  full_name: Beierling, Helen
  id: '50995'
  last_name: Beierling
- first_name: Josephine Beryl
  full_name: Fisher, Josephine Beryl
  id: '56345'
  last_name: Fisher
  orcid: 0000-0002-9997-9241
- first_name: André
  full_name: Groß, André
  id: '93405'
  last_name: Groß
  orcid: 0000-0002-9593-7220
- first_name: Ilona
  full_name: Horwath, Ilona
  id: '68836'
  last_name: Horwath
- first_name: Nils
  full_name: Klowait, Nils
  id: '98454'
  last_name: Klowait
  orcid: 0000-0002-7347-099X
- first_name: Stefan Teodorov
  full_name: Lazarov, Stefan Teodorov
  id: '90345'
  last_name: Lazarov
  orcid: 0009-0009-0892-9483
- first_name: Michael
  full_name: Lenke, Michael
  last_name: Lenke
- first_name: Vivien
  full_name: Lohmer, Vivien
  last_name: Lohmer
- first_name: Katharina
  full_name: Rohlfing, Katharina
  id: '50352'
  last_name: Rohlfing
  orcid: 0000-0002-5676-8233
- first_name: Ingrid
  full_name: Scharlau, Ingrid
  id: '451'
  last_name: Scharlau
  orcid: 0000-0003-2364-9489
- first_name: Amit
  full_name: Singh, Amit
  id: '91018'
  last_name: Singh
  orcid: 0000-0002-7789-1521
- first_name: Lutz
  full_name: Terfloth, Lutz
  id: '37320'
  last_name: Terfloth
- first_name: Anna-Lisa
  full_name: Vollmer, Anna-Lisa
  id: '86589'
  last_name: Vollmer
- first_name: Yu
  full_name: Wang, Yu
  last_name: Wang
- first_name: Annedore
  full_name: Wilmes, Annedore
  last_name: Wilmes
- first_name: Britta
  full_name: Wrede, Britta
  last_name: Wrede
citation:
  ama: Buschmeier H, Buhl HM, Kern F, et al. Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations.
    <i>Cognitive Systems Research</i>. 2025;94. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419">10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419</a>
  apa: Buschmeier, H., Buhl, H. M., Kern, F., Grimminger, A., Beierling, H., Fisher,
    J. B., Groß, A., Horwath, I., Klowait, N., Lazarov, S. T., Lenke, M., Lohmer,
    V., Rohlfing, K., Scharlau, I., Singh, A., Terfloth, L., Vollmer, A.-L., Wang,
    Y., Wilmes, A., &#38; Wrede, B. (2025). Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations.
    <i>Cognitive Systems Research</i>, <i>94</i>, Article 101419. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419</a>
  bibtex: '@article{Buschmeier_Buhl_Kern_Grimminger_Beierling_Fisher_Groß_Horwath_Klowait_Lazarov_et
    al._2025, title={Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations}, volume={94}, DOI={<a
    href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419">10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419</a>},
    number={101419}, journal={Cognitive Systems Research}, author={Buschmeier, Hendrik
    and Buhl, Heike M. and Kern, Friederike and Grimminger, Angela and Beierling,
    Helen and Fisher, Josephine Beryl and Groß, André and Horwath, Ilona and Klowait,
    Nils and Lazarov, Stefan Teodorov and et al.}, year={2025} }'
  chicago: Buschmeier, Hendrik, Heike M. Buhl, Friederike Kern, Angela Grimminger,
    Helen Beierling, Josephine Beryl Fisher, André Groß, et al. “Forms of Understanding
    for XAI-Explanations.” <i>Cognitive Systems Research</i> 94 (2025). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419</a>.
  ieee: 'H. Buschmeier <i>et al.</i>, “Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations,”
    <i>Cognitive Systems Research</i>, vol. 94, Art. no. 101419, 2025, doi: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419">10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419</a>.'
  mla: Buschmeier, Hendrik, et al. “Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations.”
    <i>Cognitive Systems Research</i>, vol. 94, 101419, 2025, doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419">10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419</a>.
  short: H. Buschmeier, H.M. Buhl, F. Kern, A. Grimminger, H. Beierling, J.B. Fisher,
    A. Groß, I. Horwath, N. Klowait, S.T. Lazarov, M. Lenke, V. Lohmer, K. Rohlfing,
    I. Scharlau, A. Singh, L. Terfloth, A.-L. Vollmer, Y. Wang, A. Wilmes, B. Wrede,
    Cognitive Systems Research 94 (2025).
date_created: 2025-09-08T14:24:32Z
date_updated: 2025-12-05T15:32:25Z
ddc:
- '006'
department:
- _id: '660'
doi: 10.1016/j.cogsys.2025.101419
file:
- access_level: closed
  content_type: application/pdf
  creator: hbuschme
  date_created: 2025-12-01T21:02:20Z
  date_updated: 2025-12-01T21:02:20Z
  file_id: '62730'
  file_name: Buschmeier-etal-2025-COGSYS.pdf
  file_size: 10114981
  relation: main_file
  success: 1
file_date_updated: 2025-12-01T21:02:20Z
has_accepted_license: '1'
intvolume: '        94'
keyword:
- understanding
- explaining
- explanations
- explainable
- AI
- interdisciplinarity
- comprehension
- enabledness
- agency
language:
- iso: eng
main_file_link:
- open_access: '1'
  url: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1389041725000993?via%3Dihub
oa: '1'
project:
- _id: '111'
  name: 'TRR 318; TP A01: Adaptives Erklären'
- _id: '112'
  name: 'TRR 318; TP A02: Verstehensprozess einer Erklärung beobachten und auswerten'
- _id: '113'
  name: TRR 318 - Subproject A3
- _id: '114'
  name: 'TRR 318; TP A04: Integration des technischen Modells in das Partnermodell
    bei der Erklärung von digitalen Artefakten'
- _id: '115'
  name: 'TRR 318; TP A05: Echtzeitmessung der Aufmerksamkeit im Mensch-Roboter-Erklärdialog'
- _id: '122'
  name: TRR 318 - Subproject B3
- _id: '123'
  name: TRR 318 - Subproject B5
- _id: '119'
  name: TRR 318 - Project Area Ö
publication: Cognitive Systems Research
publication_status: published
quality_controlled: '1'
status: public
title: Forms of Understanding for XAI-Explanations
type: journal_article
user_id: '57578'
volume: 94
year: '2025'
...
---
_id: '59888'
abstract:
- lang: eng
  text: "Everyday explanations are interactive processes with the aim to provide a
    less knowledgeable person with reasonable information about other people, objects,
    or events. Because explanations are interactive communicative processes, the topical
    structure of an explanation may vary dynamically depending on the immediate feedback
    of the explainee. In this paper, we analyse topical transitions in medical explanations
    organised by different physicians (explainers) related to different forms of multimodal
    behaviour of caregivers (explainees) attending an explanation about the procedures
    of\r\nan upcoming surgery of a child. The analyses reveal that explainees’ multimodal
    behaviour with gaze shifts (and particularly gaze aversion) can predict a transition
    from an elaborated topic to a new one, whereas explainees’ forms of multimodal
    behaviour with static gaze cannot be related to changes of the topical structure."
article_type: original
author:
- first_name: Stefan Teodorov
  full_name: Lazarov, Stefan Teodorov
  id: '90345'
  last_name: Lazarov
  orcid: 0009-0009-0892-9483
- first_name: Kai
  full_name: Biermeier, Kai
  id: '55908'
  last_name: Biermeier
  orcid: 0000-0002-2879-2359
- first_name: Angela
  full_name: Grimminger, Angela
  id: '57578'
  last_name: Grimminger
citation:
  ama: Lazarov ST, Biermeier K, Grimminger A. Changes in the topical structure of
    explanations are related to explainees’ multimodal behaviour. <i>Interaction Studies</i>.
    2024;25(3):257-280. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1075/is.23033.laz">10.1075/is.23033.laz</a>
  apa: Lazarov, S. T., Biermeier, K., &#38; Grimminger, A. (2024). Changes in the
    topical structure of explanations are related to explainees’ multimodal behaviour.
    <i>Interaction Studies</i>, <i>25</i>(3), 257–280. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1075/is.23033.laz">https://doi.org/10.1075/is.23033.laz</a>
  bibtex: '@article{Lazarov_Biermeier_Grimminger_2024, title={Changes in the topical
    structure of explanations are related to explainees’ multimodal behaviour}, volume={25},
    DOI={<a href="https://doi.org/10.1075/is.23033.laz">10.1075/is.23033.laz</a>},
    number={3}, journal={Interaction Studies}, publisher={John Benjamins}, author={Lazarov,
    Stefan Teodorov and Biermeier, Kai and Grimminger, Angela}, year={2024}, pages={257–280}
    }'
  chicago: 'Lazarov, Stefan Teodorov, Kai Biermeier, and Angela Grimminger. “Changes
    in the Topical Structure of Explanations Are Related to Explainees’ Multimodal
    Behaviour.” <i>Interaction Studies</i> 25, no. 3 (2024): 257–80. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1075/is.23033.laz">https://doi.org/10.1075/is.23033.laz</a>.'
  ieee: 'S. T. Lazarov, K. Biermeier, and A. Grimminger, “Changes in the topical structure
    of explanations are related to explainees’ multimodal behaviour,” <i>Interaction
    Studies</i>, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 257–280, 2024, doi: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1075/is.23033.laz">10.1075/is.23033.laz</a>.'
  mla: Lazarov, Stefan Teodorov, et al. “Changes in the Topical Structure of Explanations
    Are Related to Explainees’ Multimodal Behaviour.” <i>Interaction Studies</i>,
    vol. 25, no. 3, John Benjamins, 2024, pp. 257–80, doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1075/is.23033.laz">10.1075/is.23033.laz</a>.
  short: S.T. Lazarov, K. Biermeier, A. Grimminger, Interaction Studies 25 (2024)
    257–280.
date_created: 2025-05-14T06:25:13Z
date_updated: 2025-06-27T13:57:36Z
doi: 10.1075/is.23033.laz
intvolume: '        25'
issue: '3'
keyword:
- explanations
- multimodal behaviour
- elaborations
- conditional probabilities
language:
- iso: eng
main_file_link:
- open_access: '1'
  url: https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/is.23033.laz#metrics_content
oa: '1'
page: 257 - 280
project:
- _id: '112'
  grant_number: '438445824'
  name: 'TRR 318 - A02: TRR 318 - Verstehensprozess einer Erklärung beobachten und
    auswerten (Teilprojekt A02)'
publication: Interaction Studies
publication_identifier:
  eissn:
  - 1572-0381
publication_status: published
publisher: John Benjamins
status: public
title: Changes in the topical structure of explanations are related to explainees’
  multimodal behaviour
type: journal_article
user_id: '90345'
volume: 25
year: '2024'
...
---
_id: '61403'
author:
- first_name: Vivien
  full_name: Lohmer, Vivien
  last_name: Lohmer
- first_name: Friederike
  full_name: Kern, Friederike
  last_name: Kern
citation:
  ama: 'Lohmer V, Kern F. The role of interactive gestures in explanatory interactions.
    In: <i>Second International Multimodal Communication Symposium (MMSYM) - Book
    of Abstract</i>. ; 2024.'
  apa: Lohmer, V., &#38; Kern, F. (2024). The role of interactive gestures in explanatory
    interactions. <i>Second International Multimodal Communication Symposium (MMSYM)
    - Book of Abstract</i>.  2nd International Multimodal Communication Symposium,
    Goethe-Universität Frankfurt, Deutschland.
  bibtex: '@inproceedings{Lohmer_Kern_2024, title={The role of interactive gestures
    in explanatory interactions}, booktitle={Second International Multimodal Communication
    Symposium (MMSYM) - Book of Abstract}, author={Lohmer, Vivien and Kern, Friederike},
    year={2024} }'
  chicago: Lohmer, Vivien, and Friederike Kern. “The Role of Interactive Gestures
    in Explanatory Interactions.” In <i>Second International Multimodal Communication
    Symposium (MMSYM) - Book of Abstract</i>, 2024.
  ieee: V. Lohmer and F. Kern, “The role of interactive gestures in explanatory interactions,”
    presented at the  2nd International Multimodal Communication Symposium, Goethe-Universität
    Frankfurt, Deutschland, 2024.
  mla: Lohmer, Vivien, and Friederike Kern. “The Role of Interactive Gestures in Explanatory
    Interactions.” <i>Second International Multimodal Communication Symposium (MMSYM)
    - Book of Abstract</i>, 2024.
  short: 'V. Lohmer, F. Kern, in: Second International Multimodal Communication Symposium
    (MMSYM) - Book of Abstract, 2024.'
conference:
  end_date: 2024-09-27
  location: Goethe-Universität Frankfurt, Deutschland
  name: ' 2nd International Multimodal Communication Symposium'
  start_date: 2024-09-25
date_created: 2025-09-23T09:53:51Z
date_updated: 2025-09-23T10:13:59Z
keyword:
- gesture
- explanations
- conversation analysis
language:
- iso: eng
project:
- _id: '114'
  name: 'TRR 318; TP A04: Integration des technischen Modells in das Partnermodell
    bei der Erklärung von digitalen Artefakten'
publication: Second International Multimodal Communication Symposium (MMSYM) - Book
  of Abstract
publication_status: published
status: public
title: The role of interactive gestures in explanatory interactions
type: conference_abstract
user_id: '99097'
year: '2024'
...
---
_id: '56477'
abstract:
- lang: eng
  text: We describe a prototype of a Clinical Decision Support System (CDSS) that
    provides (counterfactual) explanations to support accurate medical diagnosis.
    The prototype is based on an inherently interpretable Bayesian network (BN). Our
    research aims to investigate which explanations are most useful for medical experts
    and whether co-constructing explanations can foster trust and acceptance of CDSS.
author:
- first_name: Felix
  full_name: Liedeker, Felix
  id: '93275'
  last_name: Liedeker
- first_name: Philipp
  full_name: Cimiano, Philipp
  last_name: Cimiano
citation:
  ama: 'Liedeker F, Cimiano P. A Prototype of an Interactive Clinical Decision Support
    System with Counterfactual Explanations. In: ; 2023.'
  apa: Liedeker, F., &#38; Cimiano, P. (2023). <i>A Prototype of an Interactive Clinical
    Decision Support System with Counterfactual Explanations</i>. xAI-2023 Late-breaking
    Work, Demos and Doctoral Consortium co-located with the 1st World Conference on
    eXplainable Artificial Intelligence (xAI-2023), Lissabon.
  bibtex: '@inproceedings{Liedeker_Cimiano_2023, title={A Prototype of an Interactive
    Clinical Decision Support System with Counterfactual Explanations}, author={Liedeker,
    Felix and Cimiano, Philipp}, year={2023} }'
  chicago: Liedeker, Felix, and Philipp Cimiano. “A Prototype of an Interactive Clinical
    Decision Support System with Counterfactual Explanations,” 2023.
  ieee: F. Liedeker and P. Cimiano, “A Prototype of an Interactive Clinical Decision
    Support System with Counterfactual Explanations,” presented at the xAI-2023 Late-breaking
    Work, Demos and Doctoral Consortium co-located with the 1st World Conference on
    eXplainable Artificial Intelligence (xAI-2023), Lissabon, 2023.
  mla: Liedeker, Felix, and Philipp Cimiano. <i>A Prototype of an Interactive Clinical
    Decision Support System with Counterfactual Explanations</i>. 2023.
  short: 'F. Liedeker, P. Cimiano, in: 2023.'
conference:
  end_date: 2023-07-28
  location: Lissabon
  name: xAI-2023 Late-breaking Work, Demos and Doctoral Consortium co-located with
    the 1st World Conference on eXplainable Artificial Intelligence (xAI-2023)
  start_date: 2023-07-26
date_created: 2024-10-09T14:50:09Z
date_updated: 2024-10-09T15:04:53Z
department:
- _id: '660'
keyword:
- Explainable AI
- Clinical decision support
- Bayesian network
- Counterfactual explanations
language:
- iso: eng
project:
- _id: '128'
  name: 'TRR 318 - C5: TRR 318 - Subproject C5'
status: public
title: A Prototype of an Interactive Clinical Decision Support System with Counterfactual
  Explanations
type: conference
user_id: '93275'
year: '2023'
...
---
_id: '61402'
author:
- first_name: Vivien
  full_name: Lohmer, Vivien
  last_name: Lohmer
- first_name: Lutz
  full_name: Terfloth, Lutz
  last_name: Terfloth
- first_name: Friederike
  full_name: Kern, Friederike
  last_name: Kern
citation:
  ama: 'Lohmer V, Terfloth L, Kern F. Explaining the Technical Artifact Quarto!: How
    Gestures are used in Everyday Explanations. In: <i>First International Multimodal
    Communication Symposium - Book of Abstract</i>. ; 2023.'
  apa: 'Lohmer, V., Terfloth, L., &#38; Kern, F. (2023). Explaining the Technical
    Artifact Quarto!: How Gestures are used in Everyday Explanations. <i>First International
    Multimodal Communication Symposium - Book of Abstract</i>. 1st International Multimodal
    Communication Symposium, Universität Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona.'
  bibtex: '@inproceedings{Lohmer_Terfloth_Kern_2023, title={Explaining the Technical
    Artifact Quarto!: How Gestures are used in Everyday Explanations}, booktitle={First
    International Multimodal Communication Symposium - Book of Abstract}, author={Lohmer,
    Vivien and Terfloth, Lutz and Kern, Friederike}, year={2023} }'
  chicago: 'Lohmer, Vivien, Lutz Terfloth, and Friederike Kern. “Explaining the Technical
    Artifact Quarto!: How Gestures Are Used in Everyday Explanations.” In <i>First
    International Multimodal Communication Symposium - Book of Abstract</i>, 2023.'
  ieee: 'V. Lohmer, L. Terfloth, and F. Kern, “Explaining the Technical Artifact Quarto!:
    How Gestures are used in Everyday Explanations,” presented at the 1st International
    Multimodal Communication Symposium, Universität Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, 2023.'
  mla: 'Lohmer, Vivien, et al. “Explaining the Technical Artifact Quarto!: How Gestures
    Are Used in Everyday Explanations.” <i>First International Multimodal Communication
    Symposium - Book of Abstract</i>, 2023.'
  short: 'V. Lohmer, L. Terfloth, F. Kern, in: First International Multimodal Communication
    Symposium - Book of Abstract, 2023.'
conference:
  end_date: 2023-04-28
  location: Universität Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona
  name: 1st International Multimodal Communication Symposium
  start_date: 2023-04-26
date_created: 2025-09-23T09:50:20Z
date_updated: 2025-09-23T10:13:42Z
keyword:
- gesture
- dual nature
- explanations
- architecture
- relevance
language:
- iso: eng
project:
- _id: '114'
  name: 'TRR 318; TP A04: Integration des technischen Modells in das Partnermodell
    bei der Erklärung von digitalen Artefakten'
publication: First International Multimodal Communication Symposium - Book of Abstract
publication_status: published
status: public
title: 'Explaining the Technical Artifact Quarto!: How Gestures are used in Everyday
  Explanations'
type: conference_abstract
user_id: '99097'
year: '2023'
...