---
_id: '58472'
abstract:
- lang: eng
  text: The “kill chain”—involving the analysis of data by human users of military
    technologies, the understanding of that data, and human decisions—has fast been
    replaced by the “kill cloud” that necessitates, allows, and exacerbates increased
    thirst for domination, violence against distant populations, and a culture of
    experimentation with human lives. This commentary reports an interdisciplinary
    discussion organised by the Disruption Network Lab that brought together whistleblowers,
    artists, and experts investigating the impact of artificial intelligence and other
    emerging technologies on networked warfare. Exposing the problematics of networked
    warfare and the kill cloud, their colonial overtones, effects on human subjects
    in real life, erroneous scientific rationalities, and the (business) practices
    and logics that enable this algorithmic machinery of violence. The conference
    took place from the 29th of November to the 1st of December 2024 at the Kunstquartier
    Bethanien in Berlin, Germany.
article_type: review
author:
- first_name: Ishmael
  full_name: Bhila, Ishmael
  id: '105772'
  last_name: Bhila
citation:
  ama: 'Bhila I. Investigating the kill cloud: information warfare, autonomous weapons
    &#38; AI. <i>Digital War</i>. 2025;6(4). doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x">10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x</a>'
  apa: 'Bhila, I. (2025). Investigating the kill cloud: information warfare, autonomous
    weapons &#38; AI. <i>Digital War</i>, <i>6</i>(4). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x">https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x</a>'
  bibtex: '@article{Bhila_2025, title={Investigating the kill cloud: information warfare,
    autonomous weapons &#38; AI}, volume={6}, DOI={<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x">10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x</a>},
    number={4}, journal={Digital War}, publisher={Springer Science and Business Media
    LLC}, author={Bhila, Ishmael}, year={2025} }'
  chicago: 'Bhila, Ishmael. “Investigating the Kill Cloud: Information Warfare, Autonomous
    Weapons &#38; AI.” <i>Digital War</i> 6, no. 4 (2025). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x">https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x</a>.'
  ieee: 'I. Bhila, “Investigating the kill cloud: information warfare, autonomous
    weapons &#38; AI,” <i>Digital War</i>, vol. 6, no. 4, 2025, doi: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x">10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x</a>.'
  mla: 'Bhila, Ishmael. “Investigating the Kill Cloud: Information Warfare, Autonomous
    Weapons &#38; AI.” <i>Digital War</i>, vol. 6, no. 4, Springer Science and Business
    Media LLC, 2025, doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x">10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x</a>.'
  short: I. Bhila, Digital War 6 (2025).
date_created: 2025-01-31T13:40:36Z
date_updated: 2025-01-31T13:43:54Z
doi: 10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x
intvolume: '         6'
issue: '4'
keyword:
- autonomous weapons systems
- algorithmic warfare
- cloud computing
- war on terror
language:
- iso: eng
main_file_link:
- open_access: '1'
  url: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/s42984-025-00101-x#article-info
oa: '1'
publication: Digital War
publication_identifier:
  issn:
  - 2662-1975
  - 2662-1983
publication_status: published
publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
status: public
title: 'Investigating the kill cloud: information warfare, autonomous weapons & AI'
type: journal_article
user_id: '105772'
volume: 6
year: '2025'
...
---
_id: '56279'
abstract:
- lang: eng
  text: <jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>Biases in artificial intelligence
    have been flagged in academic and policy literature for years. Autonomous weapons
    systems—defined as weapons that use sensors and algorithms to select, track, target,
    and engage targets without human intervention—have the potential to mirror systems
    of societal inequality which reproduce algorithmic bias. This article argues that
    the problem of engrained algorithmic bias poses a greater challenge to autonomous
    weapons systems developers than most other risks discussed in the Group of Governmental
    Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems (GGE on LAWS), which should be reflected
    in the outcome documents of these discussions. This is mainly because it takes
    longer to rectify a discriminatory algorithm than it does to issue an apology
    for a mistake that occurs occasionally. Highly militarised states have controlled
    both the discussions and their outcomes, which have focused on issues that are
    pertinent to them while ignoring what is existential for the rest of the world.
    Various calls from civil society, researchers, and smaller states for a legally
    binding instrument to regulate the development and use of autonomous weapons systems
    have always included the call for recognising algorithmic bias in autonomous weapons,
    which has not been reflected in discussion outcomes. This paper argues that any
    ethical framework developed for the regulation of autonomous weapons systems should,
    in detail, ensure that the development and use of autonomous weapons systems do
    not prejudice against vulnerable sections of (global) society.</jats:p>
author:
- first_name: Ishmael
  full_name: Bhila, Ishmael
  id: '105772'
  last_name: Bhila
citation:
  ama: Bhila I. Putting algorithmic bias on top of the agenda in the discussions on
    autonomous weapons systems. <i>Digital War</i>. Published online 2024. doi:<a
    href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-024-00094-z">10.1057/s42984-024-00094-z</a>
  apa: Bhila, I. (2024). Putting algorithmic bias on top of the agenda in the discussions
    on autonomous weapons systems. <i>Digital War</i>. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-024-00094-z">https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-024-00094-z</a>
  bibtex: '@article{Bhila_2024, title={Putting algorithmic bias on top of the agenda
    in the discussions on autonomous weapons systems}, DOI={<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-024-00094-z">10.1057/s42984-024-00094-z</a>},
    journal={Digital War}, publisher={Springer Science and Business Media LLC}, author={Bhila,
    Ishmael}, year={2024} }'
  chicago: Bhila, Ishmael. “Putting Algorithmic Bias on Top of the Agenda in the Discussions
    on Autonomous Weapons Systems.” <i>Digital War</i>, 2024. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-024-00094-z">https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-024-00094-z</a>.
  ieee: 'I. Bhila, “Putting algorithmic bias on top of the agenda in the discussions
    on autonomous weapons systems,” <i>Digital War</i>, 2024, doi: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-024-00094-z">10.1057/s42984-024-00094-z</a>.'
  mla: Bhila, Ishmael. “Putting Algorithmic Bias on Top of the Agenda in the Discussions
    on Autonomous Weapons Systems.” <i>Digital War</i>, Springer Science and Business
    Media LLC, 2024, doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1057/s42984-024-00094-z">10.1057/s42984-024-00094-z</a>.
  short: I. Bhila, Digital War (2024).
date_created: 2024-09-30T11:31:29Z
date_updated: 2024-09-30T11:55:06Z
doi: 10.1057/s42984-024-00094-z
language:
- iso: eng
publication: Digital War
publication_identifier:
  issn:
  - 2662-1975
  - 2662-1983
publication_status: published
publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
status: public
title: Putting algorithmic bias on top of the agenda in the discussions on autonomous
  weapons systems
type: journal_article
user_id: '105772'
year: '2024'
...
---
_id: '56281'
author:
- first_name: Ishmael
  full_name: Bhila, Ishmael
  id: '105772'
  last_name: Bhila
- first_name: Peter
  full_name: Lee, Peter
  last_name: Lee
- first_name: Alison
  full_name: Wakefield, Alison
  last_name: Wakefield
citation:
  ama: 'Bhila I, Lee P, Wakefield A. <i>Autonomous Vehicles: Threats, Risks, and Opportunities</i>.
    ASIS International; 2024.'
  apa: 'Bhila, I., Lee, P., &#38; Wakefield, A. (2024). <i>Autonomous Vehicles: Threats,
    Risks, and Opportunities</i>. ASIS International.'
  bibtex: '@book{Bhila_Lee_Wakefield_2024, title={Autonomous Vehicles: Threats, Risks,
    and Opportunities}, publisher={ASIS International}, author={Bhila, Ishmael and
    Lee, Peter and Wakefield, Alison}, year={2024} }'
  chicago: 'Bhila, Ishmael, Peter Lee, and Alison Wakefield. <i>Autonomous Vehicles:
    Threats, Risks, and Opportunities</i>. ASIS International, 2024.'
  ieee: 'I. Bhila, P. Lee, and A. Wakefield, <i>Autonomous Vehicles: Threats, Risks,
    and Opportunities</i>. ASIS International, 2024.'
  mla: 'Bhila, Ishmael, et al. <i>Autonomous Vehicles: Threats, Risks, and Opportunities</i>.
    ASIS International, 2024.'
  short: 'I. Bhila, P. Lee, A. Wakefield, Autonomous Vehicles: Threats, Risks, and
    Opportunities, ASIS International, 2024.'
date_created: 2024-09-30T11:38:20Z
date_updated: 2024-09-30T11:44:44Z
extern: '1'
language:
- iso: eng
publication_status: published
publisher: ASIS International
related_material:
  link:
  - description: Executive Summary
    relation: table_of_contents
    url: https://www.asisonline.org/globalassets/foundation/research/foundation-av-report-executive-summary.pdf
status: public
title: 'Autonomous Vehicles: Threats, Risks, and Opportunities'
type: report
user_id: '105772'
year: '2024'
...
---
_id: '57140'
abstract:
- lang: eng
  text: Emerging technologies around autonomous weapons systems pose significant threats,
    particularly to small states in the Global South. Despite these threats, many
    such small states have struggled to participate in multilateral discussions to
    regulate and prohibit autonomous weapons systems, while the negotiations have
    been ongoing within the Group of Governmental Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons
    Systems (GGE on LAWS) under the United Nations Convention on Certain Conventional
    Weapons (UNCCW) since 2017. This paper analyses the dilemmic positions small state
    diplomats find themselves in when trying to devote time and expertise to international
    discussions on autonomous weapons systems while at the same time negotiating the
    power politics within the international law-making system and working with a limited
    expertise pool and resource base. The research is based on interviews with diplomats
    in Geneva, participation data collated by the UN, and virtual and in-person observation
    of the GGE on LAWS discussions in the UNCCW. The paper concludes that disarmament
    diplomats from small states from the Global South face various challenges, including
    small governments back home that cannot address emerging issues, great power politics,
    unequal international legal systems, and absent common positions on disarmament.
    Nevertheless, these same small states have dealt with such challenges, so as to
    decolonise the asymmetric diplomatic space within which they operate.
article_type: original
author:
- first_name: Ishmael
  full_name: Bhila, Ishmael
  id: '105772'
  last_name: Bhila
citation:
  ama: 'Bhila I. Strained Missions: the diplomatic dilemmas of small states from the
    Global South in the area of autonomous weapons systems. <i>Small States &#38;
    Territories</i>. 2024;7(2):203-220.'
  apa: 'Bhila, I. (2024). Strained Missions: the diplomatic dilemmas of small states
    from the Global South in the area of autonomous weapons systems. <i>Small States
    &#38; Territories</i>, <i>7</i>(2), 203–220.'
  bibtex: '@article{Bhila_2024, title={Strained Missions: the diplomatic dilemmas
    of small states from the Global South in the area of autonomous weapons systems},
    volume={7}, number={2}, journal={Small States &#38; Territories}, publisher={University
    of Malta. Islands and Small States Institute}, author={Bhila, Ishmael}, year={2024},
    pages={203–220} }'
  chicago: 'Bhila, Ishmael. “Strained Missions: The Diplomatic Dilemmas of Small States
    from the Global South in the Area of Autonomous Weapons Systems.” <i>Small States
    &#38; Territories</i> 7, no. 2 (2024): 203–20.'
  ieee: 'I. Bhila, “Strained Missions: the diplomatic dilemmas of small states from
    the Global South in the area of autonomous weapons systems,” <i>Small States &#38;
    Territories</i>, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 203–220, 2024.'
  mla: 'Bhila, Ishmael. “Strained Missions: The Diplomatic Dilemmas of Small States
    from the Global South in the Area of Autonomous Weapons Systems.” <i>Small States
    &#38; Territories</i>, vol. 7, no. 2, University of Malta. Islands and Small States
    Institute, 2024, pp. 203–20.'
  short: I. Bhila, Small States &#38; Territories 7 (2024) 203–220.
date_created: 2024-11-17T18:52:58Z
date_updated: 2024-11-26T09:46:00Z
ddc:
- '300'
file:
- access_level: open_access
  content_type: application/pdf
  creator: bhila
  date_created: 2024-11-17T18:52:29Z
  date_updated: 2024-11-17T18:52:29Z
  file_id: '57141'
  file_name: Strained_missions.pdf
  file_size: 627216
  relation: main_file
file_date_updated: 2024-11-17T18:52:29Z
has_accepted_license: '1'
intvolume: '         7'
issue: '2'
language:
- iso: eng
license: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/
main_file_link:
- open_access: '1'
  url: https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/128741
oa: '1'
page: 203-220
publication: Small States & Territories
publication_identifier:
  issn:
  - 2616-8006
publication_status: published
publisher: University of Malta. Islands and Small States Institute
related_material:
  link:
  - relation: confirmation
    url: https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/128741
status: public
title: 'Strained Missions: the diplomatic dilemmas of small states from the Global
  South in the area of autonomous weapons systems'
type: journal_article
user_id: '105772'
volume: 7
year: '2024'
...
---
_id: '56282'
abstract:
- lang: eng
  text: "Algorithmic bias has long been recognized as a key problem affecting decision-making
    processes that integrate artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. The increased
    use of AI in making military decisions relevant to the use of force has sustained
    such questions about biases in these technologies and in how human users programme
    with and rely on data based on hierarchized socio-cultural norms, knowledges,
    and modes of attention.\r\n\r\nIn this post, Dr Ingvild Bode, Professor at the
    Center for War Studies, University of Southern Denmark, and Ishmael Bhila, PhD
    researcher at the “Meaningful Human Control: Between Regulation and Reflexion”
    project, Paderborn University, unpack the problem of algorithmic bias with reference
    to AI-based decision support systems (AI DSS). They examine three categories of
    algorithmic bias – preexisting bias, technical bias, and emergent bias – across
    four lifecycle stages of an AI DSS, concluding that stakeholders in the ongoing
    discussion about AI in the military domain should consider the impact of algorithmic
    bias on AI DSS more seriously."
author:
- first_name: Ishmael
  full_name: Bhila, Ishmael
  id: '105772'
  last_name: Bhila
- first_name: Ingvild
  full_name: Bode, Ingvild
  last_name: Bode
citation:
  ama: Bhila I, Bode I. <i>The Problem of Algorithmic Bias in AI-Based Military Decision
    Support Systems</i>. ICRC Humanitarian Law &#38; Policy Blog; 2024.
  apa: Bhila, I., &#38; Bode, I. (2024). <i>The problem of algorithmic bias in AI-based
    military decision support systems</i>. ICRC Humanitarian Law &#38; Policy Blog.
  bibtex: '@book{Bhila_Bode_2024, title={The problem of algorithmic bias in AI-based
    military decision support systems}, publisher={ICRC Humanitarian Law &#38; Policy
    Blog}, author={Bhila, Ishmael and Bode, Ingvild}, year={2024} }'
  chicago: Bhila, Ishmael, and Ingvild Bode. <i>The Problem of Algorithmic Bias in
    AI-Based Military Decision Support Systems</i>. ICRC Humanitarian Law &#38; Policy
    Blog, 2024.
  ieee: I. Bhila and I. Bode, <i>The problem of algorithmic bias in AI-based military
    decision support systems</i>. ICRC Humanitarian Law &#38; Policy Blog, 2024.
  mla: Bhila, Ishmael, and Ingvild Bode. <i>The Problem of Algorithmic Bias in AI-Based
    Military Decision Support Systems</i>. ICRC Humanitarian Law &#38; Policy Blog,
    2024.
  short: I. Bhila, I. Bode, The Problem of Algorithmic Bias in AI-Based Military Decision
    Support Systems, ICRC Humanitarian Law &#38; Policy Blog, 2024.
date_created: 2024-09-30T11:44:28Z
date_updated: 2024-11-26T09:49:48Z
has_accepted_license: '1'
keyword:
- Algorithmic Bias
- AI
- Decision Support Systems
- Autonomous Weapons Systems
language:
- iso: eng
main_file_link:
- open_access: '1'
  url: https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2024/09/03/the-problem-of-algorithmic-bias-in-ai-based-military-decision-support-systems/
oa: '1'
publication_status: published
publisher: ICRC Humanitarian Law & Policy Blog
related_material:
  link:
  - relation: confirmation
    url: https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2024/09/03/the-problem-of-algorithmic-bias-in-ai-based-military-decision-support-systems/
status: public
title: The problem of algorithmic bias in AI-based military decision support systems
type: misc
user_id: '105772'
year: '2024'
...
---
_id: '56280'
alternative_title:
- How Postcolonial Policies Have Confined the Vendor in a Precarious Subaltern State
article_type: original
author:
- first_name: Ishmael
  full_name: Bhila, Ishmael
  id: '105772'
  last_name: Bhila
- first_name: Edson
  full_name: Chiwenga, Edson
  last_name: Chiwenga
citation:
  ama: Bhila I, Chiwenga E. Informal Street Vending in Harare. <i>Interventions</i>.
    2023;25(2):272-290. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1369801x.2022.2099938">10.1080/1369801x.2022.2099938</a>
  apa: Bhila, I., &#38; Chiwenga, E. (2023). Informal Street Vending in Harare. <i>Interventions</i>,
    <i>25</i>(2), 272–290. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1369801x.2022.2099938">https://doi.org/10.1080/1369801x.2022.2099938</a>
  bibtex: '@article{Bhila_Chiwenga_2023, title={Informal Street Vending in Harare},
    volume={25}, DOI={<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1369801x.2022.2099938">10.1080/1369801x.2022.2099938</a>},
    number={2}, journal={Interventions}, publisher={Informa UK Limited}, author={Bhila,
    Ishmael and Chiwenga, Edson}, year={2023}, pages={272–290} }'
  chicago: 'Bhila, Ishmael, and Edson Chiwenga. “Informal Street Vending in Harare.”
    <i>Interventions</i> 25, no. 2 (2023): 272–90. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1369801x.2022.2099938">https://doi.org/10.1080/1369801x.2022.2099938</a>.'
  ieee: 'I. Bhila and E. Chiwenga, “Informal Street Vending in Harare,” <i>Interventions</i>,
    vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 272–290, 2023, doi: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1369801x.2022.2099938">10.1080/1369801x.2022.2099938</a>.'
  mla: Bhila, Ishmael, and Edson Chiwenga. “Informal Street Vending in Harare.” <i>Interventions</i>,
    vol. 25, no. 2, Informa UK Limited, 2023, pp. 272–90, doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/1369801x.2022.2099938">10.1080/1369801x.2022.2099938</a>.
  short: I. Bhila, E. Chiwenga, Interventions 25 (2023) 272–290.
date_created: 2024-09-30T11:33:13Z
date_updated: 2026-03-27T10:46:19Z
doi: 10.1080/1369801x.2022.2099938
extern: '1'
intvolume: '        25'
issue: '2'
language:
- iso: eng
main_file_link:
- open_access: '1'
  url: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/1369801X.2022.2099938
oa: '1'
page: 272-290
publication: Interventions
publication_identifier:
  issn:
  - 1369-801X
  - 1469-929X
publication_status: published
publisher: Informa UK Limited
related_material:
  link:
  - relation: contains
    url: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/1369801X.2022.2099938
status: public
title: Informal Street Vending in Harare
type: journal_article
user_id: '105772'
volume: 25
year: '2023'
...