Unpacking Hostile Attitudes towards Islam and Muslims: A Differentiated Approach to Understanding Perceptions of Religion and People

Anti-Islam and anti-Muslim attitudes are frequently perceived without sufficient differentiation. The absence of a clear distinction between attitudes towards individuals and attitudes towards the religion itself is evident in definitions that conflate (attitudes towards) Islam and Muslims, as well as in the operationalization process where surveys on overtly anti-Muslim attitudes are labelled as measuring anti-Islam attitudes. To explore whether the interchangeable usage of these terms is valid or whether there is empirical evidence supporting the need to differentiate between anti-Islam and anti-Muslim attitudes, an online survey was conducted (n = 497). The results indicate that anti-Islam and anti- Muslim attitudes are statistically distinct constructs that are nevertheless correlated. Furthermore, the study investigates the extent to which variations in the degree of hostile attitudes towards Islam and Muslims can be observed. The findings reveal that Islam is evaluated significantly more negatively than Muslims. In addition, an analysis of free associations related to the terms Islam and Muslims highlights notable differences. Although the respondents oftentimes see Muslims in the context of migration and integration, associations with Muslims tend to be more positive and based on personal experiences and interactions than associations with Islam. Associations with Islam, on the other hand, are characterized by threat and conflict and externalization to foreign countries. These findings have important implications for the theoretical conceptualization of anti- Islam and anti-Muslim attitudes. By differentiating between anti-Islam and anti- Muslim attitudes, it becomes possible to deconstruct these phenomena into their constituent elements and to understand their various dimensions. It is only through such disentanglement that the interconnected nature of anti-Islam and anti-Muslim attitudes can be comprehensively examined and effectively addressed.