Protein intake and type 2 diabetes mellitus: an umbrella review of systematic reviews for the evidence-based guideline for protein intake of the German Nutrition Society

<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:sec> <jats:title>Purpose</jats:title> <jats:p>Protein-rich foods show heterogeneous associations with the risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D) and it remains unclear whether habitual protein intake is related to T2D risk. We carried out an umbrella review of systematic reviews (SR) of randomised trials and/or cohort studies on protein intake in relation to risks of T2D.</jats:p> </jats:sec><jats:sec> <jats:title>Methods</jats:title> <jats:p>Following a pre-specified protocol (PROSPERO: CRD42018082395), we retrieved SRs on protein intake and T2D risk published between July 1st 2009 and May 22nd 2022, and assessed the methodological quality and outcome-specific certainty of the evidence using a modified version of AMSTAR 2 and NutriGrade, respectively. The overall certainty of evidence was rated according to predefined criteria.</jats:p> </jats:sec><jats:sec> <jats:title>Results</jats:title> <jats:p>Eight SRs were identified of which six contained meta-analyses. The majority of SRs on total protein intake had moderate or high methodological quality and moderate outcome-specific certainty of evidence according to NutriGrade, however, the latter was low for the majority of SRs on animal and plant protein. Six of the eight SRs reported risk increases with both total and animal protein. According to one SR, total protein intake in studies was ~ 21 energy percentage (%E) in the highest intake category and 15%E in the lowest intake category. Relative Risks comparing high versus low intake in most recent SRs ranged from 1.09 (two SRs, 95% CIs 1.02–1.15 and 1.06–1.13) to 1.11 (1.05–1.16) for total protein (between 8 and 12 cohort studies included) and from 1.13 (1.08–1.19) to 1.19 (two SRs, 1.11–1.28 and 1.11–1.28) (8–9 cohort studies) for animal protein. However, SRs on RCTs examining major glycaemic traits (HbA<jats:sub>1c</jats:sub>, fasting glucose, fasting insulin) do not support a clear biological link with T2D risk. For plant protein, some recent SRs pointed towards risk decreases and non-linear associations, however, the majority did not support an association with T2D risk.</jats:p> </jats:sec><jats:sec> <jats:title>Conclusion</jats:title> <jats:p>Higher total protein intake was possibly associated with higher T2D risk, while there is insufficient evidence for a risk increase with higher intakes of animal protein and a risk decrease with plant protein intake. Given that most SRs on plant protein did not indicate an association, there is possibly a lack of an effect.</jats:p> </jats:sec>